sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce, wraps
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
      21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
      22
      23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      24
      25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
      27
      28
      29def unsupported_args(
      30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
      31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
      32    """
      33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
      34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
      35    """
      36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
      37    for arg in args:
      38        if isinstance(arg, str):
      39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
      40        else:
      41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
      42
      43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
      44        @wraps(func)
      45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
      46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
      47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
      48
      49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
      50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
      51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
      52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
      53                    )
      54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
      55
      56            return func(generator, expression)
      57
      58        return _func
      59
      60    return decorator
      61
      62
      63class _Generator(type):
      64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      66
      67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      70
      71        return klass
      72
      73
      74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      75    """
      76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      77
      78    Args:
      79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      80            Default: False.
      81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      83            True or 'always': Always quote.
      84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      86            Default: False.
      87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      89            Default: 2.
      90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      92            Default: 2.
      93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      96            False: Disables function name normalization.
      97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     101            Default: 3
     102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     104            Default: False
     105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     107            line length.
     108            Default: 80
     109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     110            Default: True
     111    """
     112
     113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     173        ),
     174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     188        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     204        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     205        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     206        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     207    }
     208
     209    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     210    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     211    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     212    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     213
     214    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     215    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     216    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     217
     218    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     219    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     220
     221    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     222    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     223
     224    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     225    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     226
     227    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     228    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     229
     230    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     231    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     232
     233    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     234    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     235
     236    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     237    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     238
     239    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     240    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     241
     242    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     243    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     244
     245    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     246    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     247
     248    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     249    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     250
     251    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     252    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     253
     254    # Whether join hints should be generated
     255    JOIN_HINTS = True
     256
     257    # Whether table hints should be generated
     258    TABLE_HINTS = True
     259
     260    # Whether query hints should be generated
     261    QUERY_HINTS = True
     262
     263    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     264    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     265
     266    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     267    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     268
     269    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     270    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     271
     272    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     273    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     274
     275    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     276    RETURNING_END = True
     277
     278    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     279    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     280
     281    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     282    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     283
     284    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     285    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     286
     287    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     288    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     289
     290    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     291    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     292    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     293    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     294
     295    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     296    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     297
     298    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     299    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     300
     301    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     302    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     303
     304    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     305    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     306
     307    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     308    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     309
     310    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     311    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     312
     313    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     314    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     315
     316    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     317    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     318
     319    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     320    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     321
     322    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     323    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     324
     325    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     326    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     327
     328    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     329    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     330
     331    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     332    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     333
     334    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     335    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     336
     337    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     338    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     339
     340    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     341    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     342
     343    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     344    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     345
     346    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     347    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     348
     349    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     350    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     351
     352    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     353    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     354
     355    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     356    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     357
     358    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     359    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     360
     361    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     362    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     363
     364    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     365    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     366
     367    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     368    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     369
     370    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     371    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     372    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     373
     374    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     375    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     376
     377    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     378    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     379
     380    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     381    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     382
     383    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     384    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     385
     386    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     387    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     388
     389    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     390    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     391
     392    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     393    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     394    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     395    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     396
     397    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     398    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     399
     400    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     401    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     402
     403    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     404    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     405
     406    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     407    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     408
     409    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     410    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     411
     412    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     413    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     414
     415    # The HEX function name
     416    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     417
     418    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     419    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     420
     421    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     422    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     423
     424    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     425    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     426
     427    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     428    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     429
     430    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     431    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     432
     433    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     434    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     435
     436    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     437    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     438
     439    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     440        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     441        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     442        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     443        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     444        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     445        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     446        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     447        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     448        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     449        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     450    }
     451
     452    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     453        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     454        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     455        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     456        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     457        "DAYS": "DAY",
     458        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     459        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     460        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     461        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     462    }
     463
     464    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     465        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     466        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     467        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     468        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     469            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     470            if e.args.get("windows")
     471            else ""
     472        ),
     473        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     474    }
     475
     476    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     477
     478    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     479
     480    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     481    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     482
     483    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     484        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     485        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     486        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     487        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     488        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     489        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     490        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     491        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     492        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     493        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     494        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     495        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     496        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     497        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     498        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     499        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     500        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     501        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     502        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     503        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     504        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     505        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     508        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     509        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     510        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     511        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     512        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     513        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     514        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     515        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     516        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     517        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     518        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     519        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     520        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     521        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     522        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     523        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     524        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     525        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     526        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     527        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     528        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     529        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     530        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     531        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     532        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     533        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     534        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     535        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     537        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     540        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     545        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     546        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     547        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     548        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     549        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     550        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     551        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     552        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     553        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     554        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     555        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     556        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     557        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     558        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     559        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     560        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     561        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     562        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     563        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     564        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     565        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     566        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     567        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     568        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     569        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     570        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     571        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     572    }
     573
     574    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     575    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     576
     577    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     578    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     579        exp.Command,
     580        exp.Create,
     581        exp.Delete,
     582        exp.Drop,
     583        exp.From,
     584        exp.Insert,
     585        exp.Join,
     586        exp.MultitableInserts,
     587        exp.Select,
     588        exp.SetOperation,
     589        exp.Update,
     590        exp.Where,
     591        exp.With,
     592    )
     593
     594    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     595    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     596        exp.Binary,
     597        exp.SetOperation,
     598    )
     599
     600    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     601    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     602        exp.Column,
     603        exp.Literal,
     604        exp.Neg,
     605        exp.Paren,
     606    )
     607
     608    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     609        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     610        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     611        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     612        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     613    }
     614
     615    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     616    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     617
     618    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     619
     620    __slots__ = (
     621        "pretty",
     622        "identify",
     623        "normalize",
     624        "pad",
     625        "_indent",
     626        "normalize_functions",
     627        "unsupported_level",
     628        "max_unsupported",
     629        "leading_comma",
     630        "max_text_width",
     631        "comments",
     632        "dialect",
     633        "unsupported_messages",
     634        "_escaped_quote_end",
     635        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     636        "_next_name",
     637        "_identifier_start",
     638        "_identifier_end",
     639    )
     640
     641    def __init__(
     642        self,
     643        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     644        identify: str | bool = False,
     645        normalize: bool = False,
     646        pad: int = 2,
     647        indent: int = 2,
     648        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     649        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     650        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     651        leading_comma: bool = False,
     652        max_text_width: int = 80,
     653        comments: bool = True,
     654        dialect: DialectType = None,
     655    ):
     656        import sqlglot
     657        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     658
     659        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     660        self.identify = identify
     661        self.normalize = normalize
     662        self.pad = pad
     663        self._indent = indent
     664        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     665        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     666        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     667        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     668        self.comments = comments
     669        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     670
     671        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     672        self.normalize_functions = (
     673            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     674        )
     675
     676        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     677        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     678            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     679        )
     680        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     681
     682        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     683
     684        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     685        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     686
     687    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     688        """
     689        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     690
     691        Args:
     692            expression: The syntax tree.
     693            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     694                it is safer to copy.
     695
     696        Returns:
     697            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     698        """
     699        if copy:
     700            expression = expression.copy()
     701
     702        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     703
     704        self.unsupported_messages = []
     705        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     706
     707        if self.pretty:
     708            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     709
     710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     711            return sql
     712
     713        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     714            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     715                logger.warning(msg)
     716        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     717            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     718
     719        return sql
     720
     721    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     722        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     723        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     724
     725        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     726            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     727
     728            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     729
     730        return expression
     731
     732    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     733        if (
     734            not expression.parent
     735            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     736            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     737        ):
     738            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     739
     740            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     741        return expression
     742
     743    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     744        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     745            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     746        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     747
     748    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     749        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     750
     751    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     752        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     753
     754    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     755        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     756        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     757        return comment
     758
     759    def maybe_comment(
     760        self,
     761        sql: str,
     762        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     763        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     764        separated: bool = False,
     765    ) -> str:
     766        comments = (
     767            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     768            if self.comments
     769            else None
     770        )
     771
     772        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     773            return sql
     774
     775        comments_sql = " ".join(
     776            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     777        )
     778
     779        if not comments_sql:
     780            return sql
     781
     782        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     783
     784        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     785            return (
     786                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     787                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     788                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     789            )
     790
     791        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     792
     793    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     794        this_sql = (
     795            self.sql(expression)
     796            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     797            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     798        )
     799        if not this_sql:
     800            return "()"
     801
     802        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     803        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     804
     805    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     806        original = self.identify
     807        self.identify = False
     808        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     809        self.identify = original
     810        return result
     811
     812    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     813        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     814            return name.upper()
     815        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     816            return name.lower()
     817        return name
     818
     819    def indent(
     820        self,
     821        sql: str,
     822        level: int = 0,
     823        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     824        skip_first: bool = False,
     825        skip_last: bool = False,
     826    ) -> str:
     827        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     828            return sql
     829
     830        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     831        lines = sql.split("\n")
     832
     833        return "\n".join(
     834            (
     835                line
     836                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     837                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     838            )
     839            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     840        )
     841
     842    def sql(
     843        self,
     844        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     845        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     846        comment: bool = True,
     847    ) -> str:
     848        if not expression:
     849            return ""
     850
     851        if isinstance(expression, str):
     852            return expression
     853
     854        if key:
     855            value = expression.args.get(key)
     856            if value:
     857                return self.sql(value)
     858            return ""
     859
     860        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     861
     862        if callable(transform):
     863            sql = transform(self, expression)
     864        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     865            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     866
     867            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     868                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     870                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     871            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     872                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     873            else:
     874                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     875        else:
     876            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     877
     878        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     879
     880    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     882        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     883        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     884
     885    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     886        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     887        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     888        options = expression.args.get("options")
     889        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     890        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     891        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     892        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     893        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     894
     895    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     896        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     897            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     898        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     899        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     900
     901    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     902        return ".".join(
     903            self.sql(part)
     904            for part in (
     905                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     906                expression.args.get("db"),
     907                expression.args.get("table"),
     908                expression.args.get("this"),
     909            )
     910            if part
     911        )
     912
     913    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     914        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     915
     916        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     917            join_mark = ""
     918            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     919
     920        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     921
     922    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     924        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     925        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     926        return f"{position}{this}"
     927
     928    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     929        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     930        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     931        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     932        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     933        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     934        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     935        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     936        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     937
     938        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     939            kind = ""
     940
     941        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     942
     943    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     945        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     946        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     947
     948    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     950        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     951            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     952        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     953            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     954        else:
     955            persisted = ""
     956        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     957
     958    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     959        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     960
     961    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     962        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     963            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     964        else:
     965            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     966
     967        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     968
     969    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     970        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     971    ) -> str:
     972        this = ""
     973        if expression.this is not None:
     974            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     975            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     976
     977        start = expression.args.get("start")
     978        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     979        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     980        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     981        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     982        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     983        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     984        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     985        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     986        cycle_sql = ""
     987
     988        if cycle is not None:
     989            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     990            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     991
     992        sequence_opts = ""
     993        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     994            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     995            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     996
     997        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     998        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     999
    1000        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1001
    1002    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1003        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1004    ) -> str:
    1005        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1006        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1007        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1008
    1009    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1010        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1011    ) -> str:
    1012        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1013
    1014    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1015        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1016
    1017    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1018        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1019
    1020    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1021        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1022        if desc is not None:
    1023            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1024        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1025
    1026    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1028        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1029        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1030        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1031        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1032        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1033        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1034        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1035
    1036    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1037        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1038
    1039    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1040        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1041        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1042        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1043        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1044
    1045        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1046
    1047        properties_sql = ""
    1048        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1049            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1050        ):
    1051            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1052                exp.Properties(
    1053                    expressions=[
    1054                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1055                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1056                    ]
    1057                )
    1058            )
    1059
    1060            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1061                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1062            elif not self.pretty:
    1063                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1064                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1065
    1066        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1067        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1068
    1069        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1070        if expression_sql:
    1071            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1072
    1073            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1074                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1075                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1076                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1077                        exp.Properties(
    1078                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1079                        ),
    1080                        wrapped=False,
    1081                    )
    1082                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1083                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1084
    1085        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1086        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1087            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1088                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1089                wrapped=False,
    1090                prefix=" ",
    1091            )
    1092
    1093        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1094        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1095        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1096
    1097        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1098        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1099        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1100
    1101        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1102        if clustered is None:
    1103            clustered_sql = ""
    1104        elif clustered:
    1105            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1106        else:
    1107            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1108
    1109        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1110        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1111            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1112                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1113                sep=" ",
    1114                prefix=" ",
    1115                wrapped=False,
    1116            )
    1117
    1118        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1119
    1120        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1121        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1122            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1123                exp.Properties(
    1124                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1125                ),
    1126                sep=" ",
    1127                prefix=" ",
    1128                wrapped=False,
    1129            )
    1130
    1131        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1132        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1133        no_schema_binding = (
    1134            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1135        )
    1136
    1137        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1138        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1139
    1140        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1141        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1142
    1143    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1144        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1145        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1146        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1147        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1148        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1149        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1150        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1151        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1152        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1153        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1154
    1155        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1156        if cache is None:
    1157            cache_str = ""
    1158        elif cache is True:
    1159            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1160        else:
    1161            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1162
    1163        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1164        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1165
    1166        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1167
    1168    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1170        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1171        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1172        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1173
    1174    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1175        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1176        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1177        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1178        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1179        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1180
    1181    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1182        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1183        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1184
    1185    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1186        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1187        if with_:
    1188            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1189        return sql
    1190
    1191    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1192        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1193        recursive = (
    1194            "RECURSIVE "
    1195            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1196            else ""
    1197        )
    1198
    1199        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1200
    1201    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1202        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1203        if alias:
    1204            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1205
    1206        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1207
    1208        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1209        if materialized is False:
    1210            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1211        elif materialized:
    1212            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1213
    1214        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1215
    1216    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1217        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1218        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1219        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1220
    1221        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1222            columns = ""
    1223            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1224
    1225        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1226            alias = self._next_name()
    1227
    1228        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1229
    1230    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1232        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1233            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1234        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1235
    1236    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1238        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1239            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1240        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1241
    1242    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1244        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1245            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1246        return this
    1247
    1248    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1250        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1251
    1252        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1253            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1254            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1255        else:
    1256            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1257            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1258
    1259        if escape:
    1260            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1261            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1262        else:
    1263            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1264            escape_sql = ""
    1265
    1266        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1267            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1268
    1269        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1270
    1271    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1272        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1273        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1274
    1275    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1277        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1278        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1279        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1280
    1281    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1282        nested = ""
    1283        values = ""
    1284        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1285
    1286        type_value = expression.this
    1287        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1288            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1289        else:
    1290            type_sql = (
    1291                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1292                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1293                else type_value
    1294            )
    1295
    1296        if interior:
    1297            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1298                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1299                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1300                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1301                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1302                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1303            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1304                nested = f" {interior}"
    1305            else:
    1306                nested = f"({interior})"
    1307
    1308        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1309        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1310            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1311            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1312        ):
    1313            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1314
    1315        return type_sql
    1316
    1317    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1318        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1319        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1320        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1321        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1322
    1323    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1325        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1326        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1327        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1328        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1329        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1330        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1331        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1332        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1333        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1334        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1335        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1336            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1337        else:
    1338            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1339        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1340
    1341    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1343        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1344        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1345        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1346        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1347        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1348        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1349        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1350        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1351        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1352        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1353        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1354        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1355        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1356        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1357
    1358    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1359        op_type = type(expression)
    1360        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1361
    1362        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1363        if (
    1364            distinct is False
    1365            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1366            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1367        ):
    1368            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1369
    1370        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1371
    1372        if distinct is None:
    1373            distinct = default_distinct
    1374            if distinct is None:
    1375                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1376
    1377        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1378            kind = ""
    1379        else:
    1380            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1381
    1382        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1383        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1384
    1385    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1386        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1387            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1388            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1389
    1390            if limit or order:
    1391                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1392                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1393                )
    1394
    1395                if limit:
    1396                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1397                if order:
    1398                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1399                return self.sql(select)
    1400
    1401        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1402        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1403
    1404        while stack:
    1405            node = stack.pop()
    1406
    1407            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1408                stack.append(node.expression)
    1409                stack.append(
    1410                    self.maybe_comment(
    1411                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1412                    )
    1413                )
    1414                stack.append(node.this)
    1415            else:
    1416                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1417
    1418        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1419        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1420        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1421
    1422    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1423        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1424        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1425        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1426        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1427        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1428            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1429        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1430        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1431
    1432    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1433        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1434            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1435            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1436            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1437
    1438        agg = expression.this
    1439        agg_arg = agg.this
    1440        cond = expression.expression.this
    1441        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1442        return self.sql(agg)
    1443
    1444    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1445        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1446            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1447            return ""
    1448
    1449        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1450
    1451    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1452        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1453        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1454        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1455        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1456        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1457        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1458        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1459        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1460        if include:
    1461            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1462        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1463        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1464        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1465        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1466        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1467        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1468
    1469        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1470
    1471    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1472        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1473        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1474        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1475        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1476        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1477        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1478        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1479
    1480        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1481
    1482        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1483        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1484
    1485    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1486        text = expression.name
    1487        lower = text.lower()
    1488        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1489        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1490        if (
    1491            expression.quoted
    1492            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1493            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1494            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1495        ):
    1496            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1497        return text
    1498
    1499    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1500        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1501        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1502            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1503
    1504        return text
    1505
    1506    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1507        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1508        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1509            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1510        return text
    1511
    1512    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1513        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1514        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1515        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1516        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1517        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1518
    1519    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1520        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1521        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1522
    1523    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1524        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1525
    1526    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1527        root_properties = []
    1528        with_properties = []
    1529
    1530        for p in expression.expressions:
    1531            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1532            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1533                with_properties.append(p)
    1534            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1535                root_properties.append(p)
    1536
    1537        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1538        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1539
    1540        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1541            with_props = " " + with_props
    1542
    1543        return root_props + with_props
    1544
    1545    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1546        if properties.expressions:
    1547            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1548        return ""
    1549
    1550    def properties(
    1551        self,
    1552        properties: exp.Properties,
    1553        prefix: str = "",
    1554        sep: str = ", ",
    1555        suffix: str = "",
    1556        wrapped: bool = True,
    1557    ) -> str:
    1558        if properties.expressions:
    1559            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1560            if expressions:
    1561                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1562                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1563        return ""
    1564
    1565    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1566        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1567
    1568    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1569        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1570        for p in properties.expressions:
    1571            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1572            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1573                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1574            else:
    1575                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1576
    1577        return properties_locs
    1578
    1579    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1580        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1581            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1582        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1583
    1584    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1585        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1586        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1587            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1588
    1589        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1590        if not property_name:
    1591            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1592
    1593        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1594
    1595    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1596        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1597            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1598            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1599
    1600            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1601            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1602                like = f"({like})"
    1603
    1604            return like
    1605
    1606        if expression.expressions:
    1607            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1608
    1609        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1610        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1611
    1612    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1613        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1614        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1615        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1616
    1617    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1618        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1619        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1620        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1621        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1622        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1623        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1624        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1625
    1626    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1627        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1628        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1629        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1630
    1631    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1632        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1633            property = "DEFAULT"
    1634        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1635            property = "ON"
    1636        else:
    1637            property = "OFF"
    1638        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1639
    1640    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1641        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1642            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1643        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1644            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1645
    1646        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1647        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1648
    1649    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1650        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1651        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1652        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1653        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1654            if default:
    1655                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1656            elif minimum:
    1657                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1658            else:
    1659                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1660            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1661        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1662        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1663        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1664
    1665    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1666        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1667        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1668        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1669        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1670        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1671
    1672        if autotemp is not None:
    1673            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1674        elif always:
    1675            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1676        elif default:
    1677            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1678        elif manual:
    1679            prop = "MANUAL"
    1680        elif never:
    1681            prop = "NEVER"
    1682        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1683
    1684    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1685        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1686        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1687        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1688        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1689        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1690        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1691        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1692
    1693    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1694        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1695            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1696        if expression.this:
    1697            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1698            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1699            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1700
    1701        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1702        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1703        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1704
    1705    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1707
    1708        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1709        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1710            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1711        else:
    1712            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1713
    1714        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1715
    1716    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1717        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1718        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1719        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1720        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1721        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1722        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1723        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1724
    1725    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1726        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1727        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1728        statistics_sql = ""
    1729        if statistics is not None:
    1730            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1731        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1732
    1733    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1735        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1736        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1737        data_consistency = (
    1738            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1739        )
    1740        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1741        retention_period = (
    1742            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1743        )
    1744
    1745        if this:
    1746            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1747        else:
    1748            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1749
    1750        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1751
    1752        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1753
    1754    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1755        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1756        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1757
    1758        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1759            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1760        else:
    1761            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1762
    1763        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1764        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1765        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1766        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1767        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1768        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1769        if is_function:
    1770            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1771        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1772
    1773        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1774        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1775        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1776        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1777        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1778        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1779        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1780        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1781
    1782        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1783            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1784        else:
    1785            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1786
    1787        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1788        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1789        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1790        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1791
    1792        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1793        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1794
    1795        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1796        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1797
    1798    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1800
    1801    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1802        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1803        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1805        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1806        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1807
    1808    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1809        return expression.name
    1810
    1811    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1812        return expression.name
    1813
    1814    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1815        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1816
    1817        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1818        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1819
    1820        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1821        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1822        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1823
    1824        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1825        if expressions:
    1826            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1827            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1828
    1829        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1830
    1831    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1832        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1833
    1834    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1835        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1836        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1837        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1838        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1839        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1840        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1841        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1842        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1843        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1844        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1845        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1846        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1847        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1848
    1849    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1850        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1851
    1852    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1853        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1854        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1855        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1856        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1857
    1858    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1860        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1861        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1862        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1863
    1864    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1865        return ".".join(
    1866            self.sql(part)
    1867            for part in (
    1868                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1869                expression.args.get("db"),
    1870                expression.args.get("this"),
    1871            )
    1872            if part is not None
    1873        )
    1874
    1875    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1876        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1877        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1878        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1879        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1880        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1881        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1882        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1883        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1884
    1885        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1886        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1887            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1888            sample_post_alias = ""
    1889        else:
    1890            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1891            sample_post_alias = sample
    1892
    1893        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1894        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1895        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1896        joins = self.indent(
    1897            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1898        )
    1899        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1900
    1901        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1902        if file_format:
    1903            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1904            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1905            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1906
    1907        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1908        if ordinality:
    1909            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1910            alias = ""
    1911
    1912        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1913        if when:
    1914            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1915
    1916        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1917        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1918
    1919        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1920        if rows_from:
    1921            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1922
    1923        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1924
    1925    def tablesample_sql(
    1926        self,
    1927        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1928        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1929    ) -> str:
    1930        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1931        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1932        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1933        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1934        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1935        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1936        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1937        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1938        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1939
    1940        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1941        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1942            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1943
    1944        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1945        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1946            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1947
    1948        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1949        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1950            expr = f"({expr})"
    1951
    1952        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1953
    1954    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1956
    1957        if expression.this:
    1958            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1959            if not expressions:
    1960                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1961
    1962            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1963            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1964            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1965            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1966            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1967
    1968        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1969        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1970        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1971
    1972        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1973
    1974        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1975        if include_nulls is not None:
    1976            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1977        else:
    1978            nulls = ""
    1979
    1980        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1981        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1982        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    1983
    1984    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1985        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1986        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1987        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1988        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1989
    1990    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1991        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    1992
    1993    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1995        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1996        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1997        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1998        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1999        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2000        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2001        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2002            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2003        else:
    2004            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2005        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2006        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2007
    2008    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2009        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2010
    2011        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2012        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2013            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2014            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2015            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2016            values = (
    2017                f"({values})"
    2018                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2019                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2020                else values
    2021            )
    2022            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2023
    2024        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2025        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2026        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2027
    2028        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2029
    2030        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2031            row = tup.expressions
    2032
    2033            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2034                row = [
    2035                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2036                ]
    2037
    2038            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2039
    2040        if self.pretty:
    2041            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2042            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2043            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2044            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2045            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2046
    2047        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2048        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2049        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2050
    2051    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2052        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2053
    2054    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2055    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2056        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2057        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2058        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2059
    2060    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2061        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2062
    2063    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2064        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2065        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2066
    2067    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2068        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2069        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2070
    2071    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2073        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2074
    2075    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2076        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2077        if group_by_all is True:
    2078            modifier = " ALL"
    2079        elif group_by_all is False:
    2080            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2081        else:
    2082            modifier = ""
    2083
    2084        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2085
    2086        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2087        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2088        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2089
    2090        groupings = csv(
    2091            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2092            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2093            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2094            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2095            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2096        )
    2097
    2098        if (
    2099            expression.expressions
    2100            and groupings
    2101            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2102        ):
    2103            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2104
    2105        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2106
    2107    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2108        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2109        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2110
    2111    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2112        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2113        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2114        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2115        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2116        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2117        return start + connect
    2118
    2119    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2120        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2121
    2122    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2123        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2124            side = None
    2125        else:
    2126            side = expression.side
    2127
    2128        op_sql = " ".join(
    2129            op
    2130            for op in (
    2131                expression.method,
    2132                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2133                side,
    2134                expression.kind,
    2135                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2136            )
    2137            if op
    2138        )
    2139        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2140        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2141        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2142        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2143
    2144        if not on_sql and using:
    2145            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2146
    2147        this = expression.this
    2148        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2149
    2150        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2151        if exprs:
    2152            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2153
    2154        if on_sql:
    2155            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2156            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2157            if using:
    2158                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2159            else:
    2160                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2161        elif not op_sql:
    2162            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2163                return f" {this_sql}"
    2164
    2165            return f", {this_sql}"
    2166
    2167        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2168            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2169
    2170        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2171
    2172    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2173        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2174        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2175        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2176
    2177    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2178        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2179
    2180        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2181        if cross_apply is True:
    2182            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2183        elif cross_apply is False:
    2184            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2185        else:
    2186            op = ""
    2187
    2188        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2189
    2190    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2192
    2193        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2194            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2195            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2196            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2197            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2198            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2199            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2200
    2201        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2202        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2203        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2204
    2205    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2207
    2208        args = [
    2209            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2210            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2211            if e
    2212        ]
    2213
    2214        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2215        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2217        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2218
    2219        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2220
    2221    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2223        value = expression.expression
    2224        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2226        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2227        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2228
    2229    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2230        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2231        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2233        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2234        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2235        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2236        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2237        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2238
    2239    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2240        expressions = (
    2241            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2242        )
    2243        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2244        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2245
    2246    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2247        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2248
    2249    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2250        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2251            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2252            return ""
    2253
    2254        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2256        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2257        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2258
    2259        if wait is not None:
    2260            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2261                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2262            else:
    2263                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2264
    2265        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2266
    2267    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2268        text = expression.this or ""
    2269        if expression.is_string:
    2270            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2271        return text
    2272
    2273    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2274        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2275            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2276            text = "".join(
    2277                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2278            )
    2279
    2280        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2281            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2282        )
    2283
    2284    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2285        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2286        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2287        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2288        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2289        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2290        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2291        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2292        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2293        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2294        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2295        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2296
    2297    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2298        return "NULL"
    2299
    2300    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2301        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2302
    2303    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2304        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2305        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2306        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2307        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2308
    2309    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2310        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2311        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2312        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2313        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2314        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2315        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2316        interpolated_values = [
    2317            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2318            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2319        ]
    2320        interpolate = (
    2321            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2322        )
    2323        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2324
    2325    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2326        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2327
    2328    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2329        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2330
    2331    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2332        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2333
    2334    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2335        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2336        asc = not desc
    2337
    2338        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2339        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2340        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2341        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2342        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2343
    2344        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2345
    2346        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2347        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2348        if nulls_first and (
    2349            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2350        ):
    2351            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2352        elif (
    2353            nulls_last
    2354            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2355            and not nulls_are_last
    2356        ):
    2357            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2358
    2359        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2360        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2361            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2362            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2363                self.unsupported(
    2364                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2365                )
    2366                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2367            elif (
    2368                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2369                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2370                and (
    2371                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2372                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2373                )
    2374            ):
    2375                self.unsupported(
    2376                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2377                )
    2378                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2379            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2380                if expression.this.is_int:
    2381                    self.unsupported(
    2382                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2383                    )
    2384                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2385                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2386                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2387                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2388
    2389        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2390        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2391
    2392        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2393
    2394    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2395        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2396        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2397
    2398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2399
    2400        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2401
    2402    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2403        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2404        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2405        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2406        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2407        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2408        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2409        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2410        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2411        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2412        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2413        definition_sqls = [
    2414            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2415            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2416        ]
    2417        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2418        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2419        body = "".join(
    2420            (
    2421                partition,
    2422                order,
    2423                measures,
    2424                rows,
    2425                after,
    2426                pattern,
    2427                define,
    2428            )
    2429        )
    2430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2431        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2432        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2433
    2434    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2435        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2436
    2437        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2438            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2439        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2440            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2441
    2442        return csv(
    2443            *sqls,
    2444            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2445            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2446            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2447            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2448            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2449            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2450            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2451            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2452            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2453            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2454            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2455            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2456            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2457            sep="",
    2458        )
    2459
    2460    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2461        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2462        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2463
    2464    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2465        return ""
    2466
    2467    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2468        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2469    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2470        return [
    2471            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2472            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2473        ]
    2474
    2475    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2476        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2477        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2478        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2479
    2480    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2481        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2482        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2483            into.pop()
    2484
    2485        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2486        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2487        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2488        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2489
    2490        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2491        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2492            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2493            limit.pop()
    2494        else:
    2495            top = ""
    2496
    2497        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2498
    2499        if kind:
    2500            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2501                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2502            else:
    2503                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2504                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2505                        sqls=[
    2506                            self.sql(
    2507                                exp.Struct(
    2508                                    expressions=[
    2509                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2510                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2511                                        else e
    2512                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2513                                    ]
    2514                                )
    2515                            )
    2516                        ]
    2517                    )
    2518                kind = ""
    2519
    2520        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2521        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2522
    2523        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2524        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2525        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2526        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2527        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2528            expression,
    2529            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2530            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2531            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2532        )
    2533
    2534        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2535        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2536            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2537            expression.pop_comments()
    2538
    2539        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2540
    2541        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2542            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2543                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2544            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2545                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2546            else:
    2547                table_kind = ""
    2548            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2549
    2550        return sql
    2551
    2552    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2554        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2555        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2556
    2557    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2558        if expression.expressions:
    2559            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2560        return ""
    2561
    2562    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2563        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2564        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2565        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2566        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2567        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2568        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2569        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2570
    2571    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2573        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2574
    2575    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2577        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2578        if kind:
    2579            kind = f"{kind}."
    2580        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2581
    2582    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2583        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2584
    2585    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2586        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2587        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2588        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2589        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2590            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2591
    2592            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2593            expression.set("sample", None)
    2594
    2595        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2596        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2597        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2598
    2599    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2600        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2601        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2602
    2603    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2604        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2605
    2606        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2607        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2608
    2609        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2610            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2611                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2612
    2613        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2614            columns = alias.columns
    2615            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2616        else:
    2617            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2618
    2619        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2620        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2621            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2622        else:
    2623            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2624                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2625            elif offset:
    2626                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2627            else:
    2628                suffix = alias
    2629
    2630        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2631
    2632    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2633        return ""
    2634
    2635    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2636        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2637        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2638
    2639    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2641        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2642        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2643        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2644        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2646        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2647
    2648        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2649
    2650        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2651        if first is None:
    2652            first = ""
    2653        else:
    2654            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2655
    2656        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2657            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2658
    2659        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2660        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2661
    2662    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2663        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2664        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2665
    2666    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2667        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2668        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2669        end = (
    2670            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2671            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2672        )
    2673        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2674
    2675    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2678        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2679
    2680    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2682        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2683        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2684        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2685
    2686    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2687        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2688    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2689        return apply_index_offset(
    2690            expression.this,
    2691            expression.expressions,
    2692            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2693        )
    2694
    2695    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2696        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2697        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2699
    2700    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2701        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2702
    2703    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2705        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2706            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2707                this = self.wrap(this)
    2708            return f"ANY{this}"
    2709        return f"ANY {this}"
    2710
    2711    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2712        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2713
    2714    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2716        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2717
    2718        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2719            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2720            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2721
    2722        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2723
    2724        if default:
    2725            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2726
    2727        statements.append("END")
    2728
    2729        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2730            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2731
    2732        return " ".join(statements)
    2733
    2734    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2736        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2737        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2738
    2739    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2740        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2741        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2742        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2743
    2744    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2745        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2746        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2747        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2748
    2749    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2750        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2751
    2752        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2753            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2754        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2755            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2756        else:
    2757            func_name = "TRIM"
    2758
    2759        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2760
    2761    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2762        args = expression.expressions
    2763        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2764            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2765
    2766        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2767            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2768
    2769        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2770            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2771
    2772        return args
    2773
    2774    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2775        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2776
    2777        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2778        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2779            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2780
    2781        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2782
    2783    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2784        return self.func(
    2785            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2786        )
    2787
    2788    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2789        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2790        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2791
    2792    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2793        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2794        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2795        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2796        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2797        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2798        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2799        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2800        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2801
    2802    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2803        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2804        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2805        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2806        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2807
    2808    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2809        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2810
    2811    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2812        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2813        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2814        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2815
    2816    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2818
    2819    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2820        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2821
    2822        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2823            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2824
    2825        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2826            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2827
    2828        return path
    2829
    2830    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2831        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2832            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2833            if not callable(transform):
    2834                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2835                return ""
    2836
    2837            return transform(self, expression)
    2838
    2839        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2840            return str(expression)
    2841
    2842        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2843            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2844            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2845        else:
    2846            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2847            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2848
    2849        return escaped
    2850
    2851    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2853
    2854    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2855        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2856        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2857
    2858        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2859        if unique_keys is not None:
    2860            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2861        else:
    2862            unique_keys = ""
    2863
    2864        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2865        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2866        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2867        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2868
    2869        return self.func(
    2870            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2871            *expression.expressions,
    2872            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2873        )
    2874
    2875    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2876        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2877
    2878    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2879        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2880        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2881        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2882        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2883        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2884        return self.func(
    2885            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2886        )
    2887
    2888    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2889        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2890        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2891        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2892        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2893        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2894        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2895        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2896        return self.func(
    2897            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2898            this,
    2899            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2900        )
    2901
    2902    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2903        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2904        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2905        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2906
    2907        if nested_schema:
    2908            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2909
    2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2911        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2912        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2913        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2914
    2915    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2916        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2917
    2918    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2920        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2921        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2922        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2923        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2924        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2925        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2926        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2927        return self.func(
    2928            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2929        )
    2930
    2931    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2933        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2934        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2935        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2936        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2937        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2938
    2939    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2941        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2942        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2943        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2944        with_ = (
    2945            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2946            if expressions
    2947            else ""
    2948        )
    2949        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2950
    2951    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2952        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2953        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2954        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2955        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2956
    2957        if query:
    2958            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2959        elif unnest:
    2960            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2961        elif field:
    2962            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2963        else:
    2964            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2965
    2966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2967
    2968    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2969        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2970
    2971    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2972        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2973        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2974            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2975        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2976
    2977        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2978            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2979            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2980
    2981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2982        if this:
    2983            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2984            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2985
    2986        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2987
    2988    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2989        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2990
    2991    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2993        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2994        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2995        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2996        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2997        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2998
    2999    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3000        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3001        parent = expression.parent
    3002        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3003        return self.func(
    3004            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3005        )
    3006
    3007    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3008        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3009        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3010
    3011    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3012        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3013        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3014        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3015        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3016
    3017    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3018        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3019
    3020    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3021        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3022        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3024
    3025    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3026        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3027
    3028        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3029        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3030
    3031        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3032            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3033        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3034            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3035
    3036        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3037
    3038    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3039        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3040
    3041    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3042        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3043        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3044        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3045
    3046    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3048        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3049        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3050
    3051    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3053        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3054        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3055
    3056    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3057        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3058
    3059    def and_sql(
    3060        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3061    ) -> str:
    3062        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3063
    3064    def or_sql(
    3065        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3066    ) -> str:
    3067        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3068
    3069    def xor_sql(
    3070        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3071    ) -> str:
    3072        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3073
    3074    def connector_sql(
    3075        self,
    3076        expression: exp.Connector,
    3077        op: str,
    3078        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3079    ) -> str:
    3080        if stack is not None:
    3081            if expression.expressions:
    3082                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3083            else:
    3084                stack.append(expression.right)
    3085                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3086                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3087                        if comment:
    3088                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3089                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3090            return op
    3091
    3092        stack = [expression]
    3093        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3094        ops = set()
    3095
    3096        while stack:
    3097            node = stack.pop()
    3098            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3099                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3100            else:
    3101                sql = self.sql(node)
    3102                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3103                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3104                else:
    3105                    sqls.append(sql)
    3106
    3107        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3108        return sep.join(sqls)
    3109
    3110    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3111        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3112
    3113    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3114        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3115
    3116    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3117        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3118
    3119    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3120        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3121
    3122    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3123        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3124
    3125    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3127
    3128    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3129        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3130        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3131        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3132        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3133        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3134        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3135        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3136
    3137    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3138        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3139        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3140
    3141    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3142        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3143            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3144        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3145
    3146    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3147        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3148
    3149    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3151        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3152        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3153        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3154        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3155        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3156
    3157    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3159        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3160        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3161        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3162        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3163        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3164        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3165        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3166        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3167
    3168    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3169        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3170        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3171        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3172        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3173
    3174        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3175            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3176
    3177        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3178
    3179    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3180        return "BEGIN"
    3181
    3182    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3183        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3184        if chain is not None:
    3185            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3186
    3187        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3188
    3189    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3190        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3191        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3192        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3193
    3194    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3196
    3197        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3198        if dtype:
    3199            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3200            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3201            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3202            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3204
    3205        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3206        if default:
    3207            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3208
    3209        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3210        if comment:
    3211            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3212
    3213        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3214        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3215
    3216        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3217            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3218
    3219        if allow_null is not None:
    3220            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3222
    3223        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3224
    3225    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3227        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3228            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3229        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3230
    3231    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3232        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3234        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3235        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3236        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3237
    3238    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3239        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3240            # Remove db from tables
    3241            expression = expression.transform(
    3242                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3243            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3245        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3246
    3247    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3248        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3249        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3250        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3251        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3252
    3253    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3254        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3255        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3256
    3257    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3258        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3259
    3260        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3261            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3262        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3263            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3264        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3267            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3268        else:
    3269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3270
    3271        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3272        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3273        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3274        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3275        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3276        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3278        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3279
    3280        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3281
    3282    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3283        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3284            return self.expressions(
    3285                expression,
    3286                key="actions",
    3287                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3288                skip_first=True,
    3289            )
    3290        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3291
    3292    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3293        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3294        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3295        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3296
    3297    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3298        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3299
    3300    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3301        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3302
    3303        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3304            case = exp.case()
    3305            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3306                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3307            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3308
    3309        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3310
    3311        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3312        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3313        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3314
    3315    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3316        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3317
    3318    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3319        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3320
    3321    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3322        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3323        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3324        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3325        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3326
    3327    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3328        return self.sql(
    3329            exp.Cast(
    3330                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3331                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3332            )
    3333        )
    3334
    3335    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3336        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3337            return self.func(
    3338                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3339            )
    3340        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3341
    3342    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3343        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3344
    3345        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3346            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3347
    3348        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3349            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3350                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3351
    3352        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3353            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3354                return self.sql(
    3355                    exp.cast(
    3356                        l / r,
    3357                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3358                    )
    3359                )
    3360
    3361        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3362
    3363    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3364        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3365
    3366    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3367        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3368
    3369    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3371
    3372    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3373        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3374
    3375    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3376        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3377
    3378    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3379        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3380
    3381    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3382        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3383
    3384    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3385        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3386
    3387    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3388        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3389
    3390    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3391        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3392
    3393    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3394        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3395
    3396    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3397        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3398            return self.sql(
    3399                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3400            )
    3401        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3402
    3403    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3404        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3405
    3406    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3407        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3408
    3409    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3410        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3411
    3412    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3413        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3414
    3415    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3416        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3417
    3418    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3419        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3420
    3421    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3422        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3423
    3424    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3425        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3426
    3427    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3428        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3429
    3430    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3431        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3432
    3433    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3434        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3435
    3436    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3437        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3438
    3439    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3440        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3441
    3442    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3443        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3444            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3445            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3446
    3447        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3448
    3449    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3450        this = expression.this
    3451        expr = expression.expression
    3452
    3453        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3454            this, expr = expr, this
    3455        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3456            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3457                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3458
    3459            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3460
    3461        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3462
    3463    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3464        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3465        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3467        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3468        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3469
    3470    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3471        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3472        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3473        binary_type = type(expression)
    3474
    3475        while stack:
    3476            node = stack.pop()
    3477
    3478            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3479                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3480                if op_func:
    3481                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3482
    3483                stack.append(node.right)
    3484                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3485                stack.append(node.left)
    3486            else:
    3487                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3488
    3489        return "".join(sqls)
    3490
    3491    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3492        args = []
    3493
    3494        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3495            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3496
    3497            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3498                for value in arg_value:
    3499                    args.append(value)
    3500            elif arg_value is not None:
    3501                args.append(arg_value)
    3502
    3503        if self.normalize_functions:
    3504            name = expression.sql_name()
    3505        else:
    3506            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3507
    3508        return self.func(name, *args)
    3509
    3510    def func(
    3511        self,
    3512        name: str,
    3513        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3514        prefix: str = "(",
    3515        suffix: str = ")",
    3516        normalize: bool = True,
    3517    ) -> str:
    3518        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3519        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3520
    3521    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3522        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3523            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3524        )
    3525        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3526            return self.indent(
    3527                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3528            )
    3529        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3530
    3531    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3532        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3533
    3534    def format_time(
    3535        self,
    3536        expression: exp.Expression,
    3537        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3538        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3539    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3540        return format_time(
    3541            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3542            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3543            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3544        )
    3545
    3546    def expressions(
    3547        self,
    3548        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3549        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3550        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3551        flat: bool = False,
    3552        indent: bool = True,
    3553        skip_first: bool = False,
    3554        skip_last: bool = False,
    3555        sep: str = ", ",
    3556        prefix: str = "",
    3557        dynamic: bool = False,
    3558        new_line: bool = False,
    3559    ) -> str:
    3560        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3561
    3562        if not expressions:
    3563            return ""
    3564
    3565        if flat:
    3566            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3567
    3568        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3569        result_sqls = []
    3570
    3571        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3572            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3573            if not sql:
    3574                continue
    3575
    3576            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3577
    3578            if self.pretty:
    3579                if self.leading_comma:
    3580                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3581                else:
    3582                    result_sqls.append(
    3583                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3584                    )
    3585            else:
    3586                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3587
    3588        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3589            if new_line:
    3590                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3591                result_sqls.append("")
    3592            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3593        else:
    3594            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3595
    3596        return (
    3597            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3598            if indent
    3599            else result_sql
    3600        )
    3601
    3602    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3603        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3604        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3605        if flat:
    3606            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3607        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3608
    3609    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3610        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3611        if not property_name:
    3612            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3613        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3614
    3615    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3616        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3617
    3618    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3619        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3620
    3621    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3623        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3624        expressions = (
    3625            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3626        )
    3627        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3628
    3629    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3632        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3633
    3634    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3635        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3636
    3637    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3638        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3639        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3640        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3641        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3642
    3643        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3644        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3645            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3646            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3647            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3648            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3649        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3650            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3651                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3652            else:
    3653                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3654        else:
    3655            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3656        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3657
    3658    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3659        table = expression.this
    3660        table_alias = ""
    3661
    3662        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3663        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3664            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3665            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3666
    3667        this = self.sql(table)
    3668        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3669        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3670        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3671        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3672        if returning:
    3673            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3674
    3675        sep = self.sep()
    3676
    3677        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3678            expression,
    3679            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3680        )
    3681
    3682    @unsupported_args("format")
    3683    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3684        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3685
    3686    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3687        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3688            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3689            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3690
    3691        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3692        if not fmt:
    3693            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3694            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3695
    3696        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3697
    3698    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3700        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3701        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3702        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3703        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3704
    3705    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3707        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3708        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3709        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3710
    3711    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3712        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3713
    3714    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3715        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3716
    3717    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3718    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3719        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3720        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3721        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3722        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3723        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3724        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3725        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3726
    3727    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3728        return ""
    3729
    3730    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3731        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3732        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3733        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3734        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3735        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3736
    3737    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3739        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3740
    3741        if having:
    3742            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3743
    3744        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3745
    3746    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3747        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3748        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3749        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3750        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3751        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3752        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3753        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3754        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3755        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3756        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3757        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3758        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3759        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3760
    3761    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3762        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3763        if key_block_size:
    3764            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3765
    3766        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3767        if using:
    3768            return f"USING {using}"
    3769
    3770        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3771        if parser:
    3772            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3773
    3774        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3775        if comment:
    3776            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3777
    3778        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3779        if visible is not None:
    3780            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3781
    3782        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3783        if engine_attr:
    3784            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3785
    3786        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3787        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3788            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3789
    3790        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3791        return ""
    3792
    3793    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3794        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3795        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3796
    3797    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3799        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3801        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3802        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3803        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3804        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3805        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3806        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3807        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3808        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3809
    3810    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3811        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3812            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3813
    3814        case = exp.Case().when(
    3815            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3816            expression.args["true"],
    3817            copy=False,
    3818        )
    3819        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3820        if else_cond:
    3821            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3822
    3823        return self.sql(case)
    3824
    3825    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3827        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3828        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3829        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3830        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3831        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3832
    3833    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3835
    3836    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3838
    3839    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3840        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3841        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3842        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3843        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3844        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3845        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3846
    3847    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3849        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3850        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3851
    3852    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3854        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3855        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3856
    3857    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3858        arg = expression.this
    3859        if not arg.type:
    3860            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3861
    3862            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3863
    3864        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3865            return self.sql(arg)
    3866
    3867        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3868        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3869
    3870    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3871        this = expression.this
    3872        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3873            return self.sql(this)
    3874
    3875        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3876
    3877    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3878        this = expression.this
    3879        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3880            return self.sql(this)
    3881
    3882        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3883
    3884    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3885        this = expression.this
    3886        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3887
    3888        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3889            return self.sql(
    3890                exp.cast(
    3891                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3892                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3893                )
    3894            )
    3895
    3896        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3897            return self.sql(this)
    3898
    3899        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3900
    3901    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3902        return self.sql(
    3903            exp.func(
    3904                "DATEDIFF",
    3905                expression.this,
    3906                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3907                "day",
    3908            )
    3909        )
    3910
    3911    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3912        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3913            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3914
    3915        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3916        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3917            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3918
    3919        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3920
    3921    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3922        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3923
    3924        return self.func(
    3925            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3926        )
    3927
    3928    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3929        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3930            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3931            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3932            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3933            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3934
    3935        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3936
    3937        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3938        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3939            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3940
    3941        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3942
    3943    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3944        expression.set(
    3945            "expressions",
    3946            [
    3947                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3948                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3949                else e
    3950                for e in expression.expressions
    3951            ],
    3952        )
    3953
    3954        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3955
    3956    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3957        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3958        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3959
    3960        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3961
    3962    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3963        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3964        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3965
    3966        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3967
    3968        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3969        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3970
    3971        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3972        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3973
    3974        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3975        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3976
    3977        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3978        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3979
    3980        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3981
    3982    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3983    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3984    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3985        to = expression.this
    3986        value = expression.expression
    3987        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3988        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3989        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3990
    3991        if not to or not value:
    3992            return ""
    3993
    3994        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3995        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3996            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3997
    3998        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3999        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4000
    4001        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4002        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4003            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4004
    4005            style_value = style.name
    4006            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4007            if not converted_style:
    4008                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4009
    4010            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4011
    4012            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4013                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4014            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4015                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4016            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4017                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4018            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4019                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4020
    4021        if not transformed:
    4022            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4023
    4024        return self.sql(transformed)
    4025
    4026    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4027        this = expression.this
    4028        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4029            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4030            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4031
    4032        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4033            return f".{this}"
    4034
    4035        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4036        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    4037
    4038    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4039        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4040        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4041
    4042    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4043        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4044            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4045
    4046            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4047
    4048        return expression
    4049
    4050    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4051        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4052            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4053            mods = sorted(
    4054                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4055                key=lambda x: 0
    4056                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4057                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4058            )
    4059
    4060            if mods:
    4061                mod = mods[0]
    4062                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4063                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4064                mod.this.replace(this)
    4065                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4066
    4067            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4068
    4069            if agg_func:
    4070                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4071
    4072        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4073
    4074    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4075        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4076        if self.pretty:
    4077            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4078        return string
    4079
    4080    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4081        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4082
    4083        if expression.expressions:
    4084            upper = option.upper()
    4085
    4086            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4087            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4088
    4089            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4090            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4091            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4092            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4093
    4094        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4095
    4096        if not value:
    4097            return option
    4098
    4099        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4100
    4101        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4102
    4103    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4104        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4105        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4106            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4107            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4108            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4109        else:
    4110            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4111            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4112            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4113
    4114        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4115        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4116
    4117        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4118        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4119
    4120        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4121        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4122
    4123        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4124        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4125
    4126        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4127
    4128    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4130        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4131
    4132        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4133        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4134        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4135        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4136
    4137        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4138        params = self.expressions(
    4139            expression,
    4140            key="params",
    4141            sep=sep,
    4142            new_line=True,
    4143            skip_last=True,
    4144            skip_first=True,
    4145            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4146        )
    4147
    4148        if params:
    4149            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4150                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4151            elif not self.pretty:
    4152                params = f" {params}"
    4153
    4154        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4155
    4156    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4157        return ""
    4158
    4159    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4160        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4161        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4162        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4163        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4164        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4165
    4166        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4167            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4168
    4169        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4170
    4171    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4172        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4173    ) -> str:
    4174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4175        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4176        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4177        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4178
    4179    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4181        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4182        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4183
    4184    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4185        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4186
    4187    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4189        expr = expression.expression
    4190
    4191        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4192            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4193            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4194        else:
    4195            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4196
    4197        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4198
    4199    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4200        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4201            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4202
    4203        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4204
    4205    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4206        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4207        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4208
    4209        if lower and upper:
    4210            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4211        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4212
    4213    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4214        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4215        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4216        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4217        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4218        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4219        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4220
    4221        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4222
    4223    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4224        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4225
    4226        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4227        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4228            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4229
    4230        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4231
    4232    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4233        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4234        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4235
    4236    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4237        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4238
    4239        parent = expression.parent
    4240        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4241            parent = parent.parent
    4242
    4243        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4244            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4245
    4246        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4247            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4248
    4249        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4250
    4251    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4252        exprs = expression.expressions
    4253        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4254            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4255        else:
    4256            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4257
    4258        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4259
    4260    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4261        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4262            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4263
    4264        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4265        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4266        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4267
    4268        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4269            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4270                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4271            )
    4272
    4273        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4274
    4275        return self.sql(expr)
    4276
    4277    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4279        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4280
    4281        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4282
    4283        if _with is None:
    4284            with_sql = ""
    4285        elif not _with:
    4286            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4287        else:
    4288            with_sql = " WITH"
    4289
    4290        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4291
    4292        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4293
    4294    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4295        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4296            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4297
    4298        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4299        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4300        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4301
    4302        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4303        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4304
    4305        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4306
    4307    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4308        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4309        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4310        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4311        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4312        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4313
    4314    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4315        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4316        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4317        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4318        return res
    4319
    4320    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4321        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4322        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4323        empty = (
    4324            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4325            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4326            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4327        )
    4328
    4329        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4330        error = (
    4331            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4332            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4333            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4334        )
    4335
    4336        if error and empty:
    4337            error = (
    4338                f"{empty} {error}"
    4339                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4340                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4341            )
    4342            empty = ""
    4343
    4344        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4345
    4346        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4347
    4348    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4349        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4350        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4351
    4352        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4353        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4354
    4355        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4356        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4357
    4358        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4359
    4360        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4361
    4362    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4363        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4364
    4365        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4366            parent = expression.parent
    4367            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4368                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4369                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4370            else:
    4371                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4372                this = expression.this
    4373                this_sql = (
    4374                    self.expressions(this)
    4375                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4376                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4377                )
    4378                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4379
    4380        return array_agg
    4381
    4382    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4384        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4385
    4386        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4387
    4388    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4389        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4390
    4391        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4392        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4393
    4394        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4395        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4396
    4397        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4398
    4399        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4400
    4401        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4402
    4403    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4404        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4405        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4406        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4407
    4408        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4409
    4410    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4412
    4413        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4414        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4415
    4416        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4417
    4418    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4419        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4420        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4421            func = f"*{func}"
    4422
    4423        return func
    4424
    4425    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4427        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4428        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4429        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4430        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4431
    4432        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4433
    4434    @unsupported_args("format")
    4435    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4436        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4437
    4438    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4439        this = expression.this
    4440        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4441
    4442        if zone:
    4443            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4444            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4445            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4446            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4447                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4448            )
    4449
    4450        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]: View Source

    30def unsupported_args(
    31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
    32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
    33    """
    34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
    35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
    36    """
    37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
    38    for arg in args:
    39        if isinstance(arg, str):
    40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
    41        else:
    42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
    43
    44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
    45        @wraps(func)
    46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
    47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
    48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
    49
    50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
    51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
    52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
    53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
    54                    )
    55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
    56
    57            return func(generator, expression)
    58
    59        return _func
    60
    61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator: View Source

      75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      76    """
      77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      78
      79    Args:
      80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      81            Default: False.
      82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      84            True or 'always': Always quote.
      85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      87            Default: False.
      88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      90            Default: 2.
      91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      93            Default: 2.
      94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      97            False: Disables function name normalization.
      98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
     100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     102            Default: 3
     103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     105            Default: False
     106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     108            line length.
     109            Default: 80
     110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     111            Default: True
     112    """
     113
     114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     174        ),
     175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     191        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     208    }
     209
     210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     214
     215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     218
     219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     221
     222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     224
     225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     227
     228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     230
     231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     233
     234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     236
     237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     239
     240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     242
     243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     245
     246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     248
     249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     251
     252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     254
     255    # Whether join hints should be generated
     256    JOIN_HINTS = True
     257
     258    # Whether table hints should be generated
     259    TABLE_HINTS = True
     260
     261    # Whether query hints should be generated
     262    QUERY_HINTS = True
     263
     264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     266
     267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     269
     270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     272
     273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     275
     276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     277    RETURNING_END = True
     278
     279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     281
     282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     284
     285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     287
     288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     290
     291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     295
     296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     298
     299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     301
     302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     304
     305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     307
     308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     310
     311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     313
     314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     316
     317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     319
     320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     322
     323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     325
     326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     328
     329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     331
     332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     334
     335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     337
     338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     340
     341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     343
     344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     346
     347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     349
     350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     352
     353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     355
     356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     358
     359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     361
     362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     364
     365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     367
     368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     370
     371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     374
     375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     377
     378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     380
     381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     383
     384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     386
     387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     389
     390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     392
     393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     397
     398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     400
     401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     403
     404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     406
     407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     409
     410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     412
     413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     415
     416    # The HEX function name
     417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     418
     419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     421
     422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     424
     425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     427
     428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     430
     431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     433
     434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     436
     437    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     438    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     439
     440    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     441        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     442        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     443        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     444        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     445        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     446        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     447        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     448        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     449        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     450        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     451    }
     452
     453    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     454        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     455        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     456        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     457        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     458        "DAYS": "DAY",
     459        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     460        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     461        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     462        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     463    }
     464
     465    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     466        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     467        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     468        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     469        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     470            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     471            if e.args.get("windows")
     472            else ""
     473        ),
     474        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     475    }
     476
     477    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     478
     479    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     480
     481    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     482    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     483
     484    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     485        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     486        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     487        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     488        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     489        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     490        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     491        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     492        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     493        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     494        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     495        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     496        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     497        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     498        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     499        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     500        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     501        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     502        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     503        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     504        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     505        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     508        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     509        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     510        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     511        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     512        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     513        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     514        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     515        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     516        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     517        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     518        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     519        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     520        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     521        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     522        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     523        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     524        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     525        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     526        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     527        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     528        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     529        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     530        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     531        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     532        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     533        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     534        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     535        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     537        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     538        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     540        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     546        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     547        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     548        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     549        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     550        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     551        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     552        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     553        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     554        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     555        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     556        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     557        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     558        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     559        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     560        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     561        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     562        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     563        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     564        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     565        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     566        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     567        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     568        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     569        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     570        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     571        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     572        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     573    }
     574
     575    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     576    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     577
     578    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     579    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     580        exp.Command,
     581        exp.Create,
     582        exp.Delete,
     583        exp.Drop,
     584        exp.From,
     585        exp.Insert,
     586        exp.Join,
     587        exp.MultitableInserts,
     588        exp.Select,
     589        exp.SetOperation,
     590        exp.Update,
     591        exp.Where,
     592        exp.With,
     593    )
     594
     595    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     596    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     597        exp.Binary,
     598        exp.SetOperation,
     599    )
     600
     601    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     602    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     603        exp.Column,
     604        exp.Literal,
     605        exp.Neg,
     606        exp.Paren,
     607    )
     608
     609    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     610        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     611        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     612        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     613        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     614    }
     615
     616    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     617    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     618
     619    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     620
     621    __slots__ = (
     622        "pretty",
     623        "identify",
     624        "normalize",
     625        "pad",
     626        "_indent",
     627        "normalize_functions",
     628        "unsupported_level",
     629        "max_unsupported",
     630        "leading_comma",
     631        "max_text_width",
     632        "comments",
     633        "dialect",
     634        "unsupported_messages",
     635        "_escaped_quote_end",
     636        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     637        "_next_name",
     638        "_identifier_start",
     639        "_identifier_end",
     640    )
     641
     642    def __init__(
     643        self,
     644        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     645        identify: str | bool = False,
     646        normalize: bool = False,
     647        pad: int = 2,
     648        indent: int = 2,
     649        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     650        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     651        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     652        leading_comma: bool = False,
     653        max_text_width: int = 80,
     654        comments: bool = True,
     655        dialect: DialectType = None,
     656    ):
     657        import sqlglot
     658        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     659
     660        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     661        self.identify = identify
     662        self.normalize = normalize
     663        self.pad = pad
     664        self._indent = indent
     665        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     666        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     667        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     668        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     669        self.comments = comments
     670        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     671
     672        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     673        self.normalize_functions = (
     674            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     675        )
     676
     677        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     678        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     679            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     680        )
     681        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     682
     683        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     684
     685        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     686        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     687
     688    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     689        """
     690        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     691
     692        Args:
     693            expression: The syntax tree.
     694            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     695                it is safer to copy.
     696
     697        Returns:
     698            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     699        """
     700        if copy:
     701            expression = expression.copy()
     702
     703        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     704
     705        self.unsupported_messages = []
     706        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     707
     708        if self.pretty:
     709            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     710
     711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     712            return sql
     713
     714        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     715            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     716                logger.warning(msg)
     717        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     718            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     719
     720        return sql
     721
     722    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     723        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     724        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     725
     726        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     727            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     728
     729            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     730
     731        return expression
     732
     733    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     734        if (
     735            not expression.parent
     736            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     737            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     738        ):
     739            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     740
     741            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     742        return expression
     743
     744    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     745        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     746            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     747        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     748
     749    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     750        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     751
     752    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     753        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     754
     755    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     756        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     757        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     758        return comment
     759
     760    def maybe_comment(
     761        self,
     762        sql: str,
     763        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     764        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     765        separated: bool = False,
     766    ) -> str:
     767        comments = (
     768            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     769            if self.comments
     770            else None
     771        )
     772
     773        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     774            return sql
     775
     776        comments_sql = " ".join(
     777            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     778        )
     779
     780        if not comments_sql:
     781            return sql
     782
     783        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     784
     785        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     786            return (
     787                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     788                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     789                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     790            )
     791
     792        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     793
     794    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     795        this_sql = (
     796            self.sql(expression)
     797            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     798            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     799        )
     800        if not this_sql:
     801            return "()"
     802
     803        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     804        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     805
     806    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     807        original = self.identify
     808        self.identify = False
     809        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     810        self.identify = original
     811        return result
     812
     813    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     814        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     815            return name.upper()
     816        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     817            return name.lower()
     818        return name
     819
     820    def indent(
     821        self,
     822        sql: str,
     823        level: int = 0,
     824        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     825        skip_first: bool = False,
     826        skip_last: bool = False,
     827    ) -> str:
     828        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     829            return sql
     830
     831        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     832        lines = sql.split("\n")
     833
     834        return "\n".join(
     835            (
     836                line
     837                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     838                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     839            )
     840            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     841        )
     842
     843    def sql(
     844        self,
     845        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     846        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     847        comment: bool = True,
     848    ) -> str:
     849        if not expression:
     850            return ""
     851
     852        if isinstance(expression, str):
     853            return expression
     854
     855        if key:
     856            value = expression.args.get(key)
     857            if value:
     858                return self.sql(value)
     859            return ""
     860
     861        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     862
     863        if callable(transform):
     864            sql = transform(self, expression)
     865        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     866            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     867
     868            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     869                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     870            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     871                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     872            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     873                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     874            else:
     875                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     876        else:
     877            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     878
     879        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     880
     881    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     882        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     883        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     884        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     885
     886    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     887        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     888        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     889        options = expression.args.get("options")
     890        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     891        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     892        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     893        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     895
     896    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     897        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     898            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     899        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     900        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     901
     902    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     903        return ".".join(
     904            self.sql(part)
     905            for part in (
     906                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     907                expression.args.get("db"),
     908                expression.args.get("table"),
     909                expression.args.get("this"),
     910            )
     911            if part
     912        )
     913
     914    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     915        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     916
     917        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     918            join_mark = ""
     919            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     920
     921        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     922
     923    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     925        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     926        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     927        return f"{position}{this}"
     928
     929    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     930        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     932        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     933        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     934        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     935        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     936        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     937        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     938
     939        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     940            kind = ""
     941
     942        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     943
     944    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     946        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     947        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     948
     949    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     951        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     952            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     953        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     954            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     955        else:
     956            persisted = ""
     957        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     958
     959    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     960        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     961
     962    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     963        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     964            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     965        else:
     966            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     967
     968        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     969
     970    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     971        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     972    ) -> str:
     973        this = ""
     974        if expression.this is not None:
     975            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     976            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     977
     978        start = expression.args.get("start")
     979        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     980        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     981        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     982        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     983        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     984        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     985        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     986        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     987        cycle_sql = ""
     988
     989        if cycle is not None:
     990            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     991            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     992
     993        sequence_opts = ""
     994        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     995            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     996            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     997
     998        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     999        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1000
    1001        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
    1002
    1003    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1004        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1005    ) -> str:
    1006        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1007        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1008        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1009
    1010    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1011        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1012    ) -> str:
    1013        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1014
    1015    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1016        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1017
    1018    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1019        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1020
    1021    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1022        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1023        if desc is not None:
    1024            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1025        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1026
    1027    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1030        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1031        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1032        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1033        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1034        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1035        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1036
    1037    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1038        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1039
    1040    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1041        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1042        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1043        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1044        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1045
    1046        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1047
    1048        properties_sql = ""
    1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1050            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1051        ):
    1052            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1053                exp.Properties(
    1054                    expressions=[
    1055                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1056                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1057                    ]
    1058                )
    1059            )
    1060
    1061            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1062                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1063            elif not self.pretty:
    1064                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1065                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1066
    1067        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1068        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1069
    1070        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1071        if expression_sql:
    1072            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1073
    1074            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1075                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1076                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1077                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1078                        exp.Properties(
    1079                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1080                        ),
    1081                        wrapped=False,
    1082                    )
    1083                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1084                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1085
    1086        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1087        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1088            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1089                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1090                wrapped=False,
    1091                prefix=" ",
    1092            )
    1093
    1094        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1095        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1096        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1097
    1098        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1099        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1100        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1101
    1102        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1103        if clustered is None:
    1104            clustered_sql = ""
    1105        elif clustered:
    1106            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1107        else:
    1108            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1109
    1110        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1111        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1112            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1113                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1114                sep=" ",
    1115                prefix=" ",
    1116                wrapped=False,
    1117            )
    1118
    1119        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1120
    1121        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1122        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1123            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1124                exp.Properties(
    1125                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1126                ),
    1127                sep=" ",
    1128                prefix=" ",
    1129                wrapped=False,
    1130            )
    1131
    1132        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1133        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1134        no_schema_binding = (
    1135            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1136        )
    1137
    1138        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1139        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1140
    1141        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1142        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1143
    1144    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1145        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1146        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1147        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1148        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1149        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1150        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1151        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1152        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1153        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1154        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1155
    1156        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1157        if cache is None:
    1158            cache_str = ""
    1159        elif cache is True:
    1160            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1161        else:
    1162            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1163
    1164        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1165        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1166
    1167        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1168
    1169    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1171        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1172        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1173        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1174
    1175    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1176        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1177        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1178        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1179        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1180        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1181
    1182    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1183        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1184        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1185
    1186    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1187        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1188        if with_:
    1189            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1190        return sql
    1191
    1192    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1193        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1194        recursive = (
    1195            "RECURSIVE "
    1196            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1197            else ""
    1198        )
    1199
    1200        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1201
    1202    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1203        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1204        if alias:
    1205            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1206
    1207        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1208
    1209        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1210        if materialized is False:
    1211            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1212        elif materialized:
    1213            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1214
    1215        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1216
    1217    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1218        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1219        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1220        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1221
    1222        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1223            columns = ""
    1224            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1225
    1226        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1227            alias = self._next_name()
    1228
    1229        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1230
    1231    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1233        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1234            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1235        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1236
    1237    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1239        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1240            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1241        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1242
    1243    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1245        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1246            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1247        return this
    1248
    1249    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1251        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1252
    1253        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1254            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1255            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1256        else:
    1257            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1258            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1259
    1260        if escape:
    1261            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1262            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1263        else:
    1264            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1265            escape_sql = ""
    1266
    1267        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1268            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1269
    1270        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1271
    1272    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1273        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1274        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1275
    1276    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1278        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1279        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1280        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1281
    1282    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1283        nested = ""
    1284        values = ""
    1285        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1286
    1287        type_value = expression.this
    1288        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1289            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1290        else:
    1291            type_sql = (
    1292                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1293                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1294                else type_value
    1295            )
    1296
    1297        if interior:
    1298            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1299                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1300                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1301                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1302                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1303                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1304            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1305                nested = f" {interior}"
    1306            else:
    1307                nested = f"({interior})"
    1308
    1309        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1310        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1311            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1312            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1313        ):
    1314            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1315
    1316        return type_sql
    1317
    1318    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1319        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1320        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1321        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1322        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1323
    1324    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1326        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1327        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1328        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1329        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1330        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1331        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1332        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1333        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1334        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1335        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1336        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1337            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1338        else:
    1339            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1340        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1341
    1342    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1344        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1345        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1346        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1347        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1348        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1349        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1350        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1351        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1352        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1353        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1354        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1355        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1356        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1357        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1358
    1359    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1360        op_type = type(expression)
    1361        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1362
    1363        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1364        if (
    1365            distinct is False
    1366            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1367            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1368        ):
    1369            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1370
    1371        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1372
    1373        if distinct is None:
    1374            distinct = default_distinct
    1375            if distinct is None:
    1376                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1377
    1378        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1379            kind = ""
    1380        else:
    1381            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1382
    1383        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1384        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1385
    1386    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1387        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1388            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1389            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1390
    1391            if limit or order:
    1392                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1393                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1394                )
    1395
    1396                if limit:
    1397                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1398                if order:
    1399                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1400                return self.sql(select)
    1401
    1402        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1403        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1404
    1405        while stack:
    1406            node = stack.pop()
    1407
    1408            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1409                stack.append(node.expression)
    1410                stack.append(
    1411                    self.maybe_comment(
    1412                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1413                    )
    1414                )
    1415                stack.append(node.this)
    1416            else:
    1417                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1418
    1419        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1420        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1421        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1422
    1423    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1424        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1425        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1426        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1427        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1428        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1429            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1430        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1431        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1432
    1433    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1434        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1435            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1436            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1437            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1438
    1439        agg = expression.this
    1440        agg_arg = agg.this
    1441        cond = expression.expression.this
    1442        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1443        return self.sql(agg)
    1444
    1445    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1446        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1447            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1448            return ""
    1449
    1450        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1451
    1452    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1453        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1454        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1455        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1456        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1457        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1458        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1459        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1460        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1461        if include:
    1462            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1463        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1464        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1465        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1466        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1467        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1468        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1469
    1470        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1471
    1472    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1473        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1474        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1475        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1476        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1477        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1478        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1479        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1480
    1481        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1482
    1483        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1484        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1485
    1486    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1487        text = expression.name
    1488        lower = text.lower()
    1489        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1490        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1491        if (
    1492            expression.quoted
    1493            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1494            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1495            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1496        ):
    1497            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1498        return text
    1499
    1500    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1502        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1504
    1505        return text
    1506
    1507    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1508        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1509        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1510            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1511        return text
    1512
    1513    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1514        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1515        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1516        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1517        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1518        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1519
    1520    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1521        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1522        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1523
    1524    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1525        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1526
    1527    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1528        root_properties = []
    1529        with_properties = []
    1530
    1531        for p in expression.expressions:
    1532            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1533            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1534                with_properties.append(p)
    1535            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1536                root_properties.append(p)
    1537
    1538        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1539        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1540
    1541        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1542            with_props = " " + with_props
    1543
    1544        return root_props + with_props
    1545
    1546    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1547        if properties.expressions:
    1548            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1549        return ""
    1550
    1551    def properties(
    1552        self,
    1553        properties: exp.Properties,
    1554        prefix: str = "",
    1555        sep: str = ", ",
    1556        suffix: str = "",
    1557        wrapped: bool = True,
    1558    ) -> str:
    1559        if properties.expressions:
    1560            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1561            if expressions:
    1562                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1563                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1564        return ""
    1565
    1566    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1567        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1568
    1569    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1570        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1571        for p in properties.expressions:
    1572            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1573            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1574                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1575            else:
    1576                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1577
    1578        return properties_locs
    1579
    1580    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1581        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1582            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1583        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1584
    1585    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1586        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1587        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1588            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1589
    1590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1591        if not property_name:
    1592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1593
    1594        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1595
    1596    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1597        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1598            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1599            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1600
    1601            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1602            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1603                like = f"({like})"
    1604
    1605            return like
    1606
    1607        if expression.expressions:
    1608            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1609
    1610        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1611        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1612
    1613    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1614        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1615        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1616        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1617
    1618    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1619        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1620        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1621        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1622        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1623        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1624        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1625        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1626
    1627    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1628        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1629        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1630        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1631
    1632    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1633        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1634            property = "DEFAULT"
    1635        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1636            property = "ON"
    1637        else:
    1638            property = "OFF"
    1639        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1640
    1641    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1642        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1643            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1644        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1645            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1646
    1647        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1648        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1649
    1650    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1651        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1652        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1653        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1654        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1655            if default:
    1656                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1657            elif minimum:
    1658                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1659            else:
    1660                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1661            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1662        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1663        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1664        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1665
    1666    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1667        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1668        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1669        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1670        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1671        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1672
    1673        if autotemp is not None:
    1674            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1675        elif always:
    1676            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1677        elif default:
    1678            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1679        elif manual:
    1680            prop = "MANUAL"
    1681        elif never:
    1682            prop = "NEVER"
    1683        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1684
    1685    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1686        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1687        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1688        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1689        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1690        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1691        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1692        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1693
    1694    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1695        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1696            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1697        if expression.this:
    1698            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1699            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1700            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1701
    1702        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1703        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1704        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1705
    1706    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1708
    1709        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1710        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1711            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1712        else:
    1713            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1714
    1715        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1716
    1717    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1718        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1719        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1720        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1721        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1722        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1723        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1724        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1725
    1726    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1727        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1728        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1729        statistics_sql = ""
    1730        if statistics is not None:
    1731            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1732        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1733
    1734    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1736        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1737        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1738        data_consistency = (
    1739            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1740        )
    1741        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1742        retention_period = (
    1743            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1744        )
    1745
    1746        if this:
    1747            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1748        else:
    1749            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1750
    1751        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1752
    1753        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1754
    1755    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1756        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1757        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1758
    1759        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1760            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1761        else:
    1762            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1763
    1764        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1765        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1766        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1767        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1768        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1769        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1770        if is_function:
    1771            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1772        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1773
    1774        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1775        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1776        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1777        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1778        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1779        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1780        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1781        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1782
    1783        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1784            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1785        else:
    1786            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1787
    1788        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1789        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1790        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1791        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1792
    1793        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1794        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1795
    1796        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1798
    1799    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1800        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1801
    1802    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1804        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1806        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1807        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1808
    1809    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1810        return expression.name
    1811
    1812    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1813        return expression.name
    1814
    1815    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1816        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1817
    1818        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1819        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1820
    1821        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1822        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1823        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1824
    1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1826        if expressions:
    1827            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1828            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1829
    1830        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1831
    1832    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1833        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1834
    1835    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1836        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1837        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1838        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1839        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1840        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1841        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1842        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1843        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1844        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1845        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1846        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1847        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1848        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1849
    1850    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1851        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1852
    1853    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1854        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1855        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1856        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1857        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1858
    1859    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1862        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1863        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1864
    1865    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1866        return ".".join(
    1867            self.sql(part)
    1868            for part in (
    1869                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1870                expression.args.get("db"),
    1871                expression.args.get("this"),
    1872            )
    1873            if part is not None
    1874        )
    1875
    1876    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1877        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1878        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1879        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1880        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1881        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1882        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1883        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1884        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1885
    1886        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1887        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1888            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1889            sample_post_alias = ""
    1890        else:
    1891            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1892            sample_post_alias = sample
    1893
    1894        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1895        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1896        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1897        joins = self.indent(
    1898            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1899        )
    1900        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1901
    1902        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1903        if file_format:
    1904            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1905            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1906            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1907
    1908        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1909        if ordinality:
    1910            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1911            alias = ""
    1912
    1913        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1914        if when:
    1915            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1916
    1917        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1918        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1919
    1920        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1921        if rows_from:
    1922            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1923
    1924        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1925
    1926    def tablesample_sql(
    1927        self,
    1928        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1929        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1930    ) -> str:
    1931        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1932        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1933        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1934        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1935        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1936        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1937        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1938        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1939        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1940
    1941        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1942        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1943            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1944
    1945        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1946        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1947            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1948
    1949        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1950        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1951            expr = f"({expr})"
    1952
    1953        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1954
    1955    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1956        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1957
    1958        if expression.this:
    1959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1960            if not expressions:
    1961                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1962
    1963            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1964            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1965            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1966            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1967            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1968
    1969        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1970        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1971        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1972
    1973        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1974
    1975        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1976        if include_nulls is not None:
    1977            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1978        else:
    1979            nulls = ""
    1980
    1981        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1982        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1983        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    1984
    1985    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1986        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1987        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1988        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1989        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1990
    1991    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1992        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    1993
    1994    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1996        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1997        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1998        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2000        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2001        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2002        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2003            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2004        else:
    2005            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2006        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2008
    2009    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2010        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2011
    2012        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2013        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2014            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2015            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2016            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2017            values = (
    2018                f"({values})"
    2019                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2020                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2021                else values
    2022            )
    2023            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2024
    2025        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2026        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2027        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2028
    2029        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2030
    2031        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2032            row = tup.expressions
    2033
    2034            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2035                row = [
    2036                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2037                ]
    2038
    2039            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2040
    2041        if self.pretty:
    2042            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2043            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2044            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2045            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2046            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2047
    2048        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2049        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2050        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2051
    2052    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2053        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2054
    2055    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2056    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2057        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2058        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2059        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2060
    2061    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2062        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2063
    2064    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2065        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2066        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2067
    2068    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2070        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2071
    2072    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2074        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2075
    2076    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2077        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2078        if group_by_all is True:
    2079            modifier = " ALL"
    2080        elif group_by_all is False:
    2081            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2082        else:
    2083            modifier = ""
    2084
    2085        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2086
    2087        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2088        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2089        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2090
    2091        groupings = csv(
    2092            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2093            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2094            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2095            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2096            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2097        )
    2098
    2099        if (
    2100            expression.expressions
    2101            and groupings
    2102            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2103        ):
    2104            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2105
    2106        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2107
    2108    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2109        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2110        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2111
    2112    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2113        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2114        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2115        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2116        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2117        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2118        return start + connect
    2119
    2120    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2121        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2122
    2123    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2124        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2125            side = None
    2126        else:
    2127            side = expression.side
    2128
    2129        op_sql = " ".join(
    2130            op
    2131            for op in (
    2132                expression.method,
    2133                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2134                side,
    2135                expression.kind,
    2136                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2137            )
    2138            if op
    2139        )
    2140        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2141        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2142        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2143        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2144
    2145        if not on_sql and using:
    2146            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2147
    2148        this = expression.this
    2149        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2150
    2151        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2152        if exprs:
    2153            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2154
    2155        if on_sql:
    2156            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2157            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2158            if using:
    2159                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2160            else:
    2161                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2162        elif not op_sql:
    2163            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2164                return f" {this_sql}"
    2165
    2166            return f", {this_sql}"
    2167
    2168        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2169            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2170
    2171        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2172
    2173    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2174        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2175        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2176        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2177
    2178    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2179        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2180
    2181        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2182        if cross_apply is True:
    2183            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2184        elif cross_apply is False:
    2185            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2186        else:
    2187            op = ""
    2188
    2189        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2190
    2191    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2193
    2194        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2195            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2196            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2197            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2198            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2199            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2200            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2201
    2202        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2203        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2204        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2205
    2206    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2208
    2209        args = [
    2210            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2211            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2212            if e
    2213        ]
    2214
    2215        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2216        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2217        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2218        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2219
    2220        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2221
    2222    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2224        value = expression.expression
    2225        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2226        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2227        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2228        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2229
    2230    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2231        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2232        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2234        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2235        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2236        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2237        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2238        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2239
    2240    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2241        expressions = (
    2242            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2243        )
    2244        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2245        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2246
    2247    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2248        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2249
    2250    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2251        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2252            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2253            return ""
    2254
    2255        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2256        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2257        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2258        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2259
    2260        if wait is not None:
    2261            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2262                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2263            else:
    2264                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2265
    2266        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2267
    2268    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2269        text = expression.this or ""
    2270        if expression.is_string:
    2271            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2272        return text
    2273
    2274    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2275        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2276            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2277            text = "".join(
    2278                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2279            )
    2280
    2281        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2282            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2283        )
    2284
    2285    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2286        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2287        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2288        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2289        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2290        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2291        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2292        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2293        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2294        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2295        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2296        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2297
    2298    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2299        return "NULL"
    2300
    2301    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2302        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2303
    2304    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2306        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2307        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2308        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2309
    2310    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2311        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2312        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2313        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2314        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2315        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2316        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2317        interpolated_values = [
    2318            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2319            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2320        ]
    2321        interpolate = (
    2322            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2323        )
    2324        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2325
    2326    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2327        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2328
    2329    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2330        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2331
    2332    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2333        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2334
    2335    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2336        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2337        asc = not desc
    2338
    2339        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2340        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2341        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2342        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2343        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2344
    2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2346
    2347        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2348        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2349        if nulls_first and (
    2350            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2351        ):
    2352            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2353        elif (
    2354            nulls_last
    2355            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2356            and not nulls_are_last
    2357        ):
    2358            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2359
    2360        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2361        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2362            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2363            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2364                self.unsupported(
    2365                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2366                )
    2367                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2368            elif (
    2369                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2370                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2371                and (
    2372                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2373                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2374                )
    2375            ):
    2376                self.unsupported(
    2377                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2378                )
    2379                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2380            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2381                if expression.this.is_int:
    2382                    self.unsupported(
    2383                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2384                    )
    2385                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2386                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2387                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2388                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2389
    2390        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2391        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2392
    2393        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2394
    2395    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2396        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2397        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2398
    2399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2400
    2401        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2402
    2403    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2404        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2405        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2406        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2407        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2408        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2409        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2410        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2411        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2412        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2413        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2414        definition_sqls = [
    2415            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2416            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2417        ]
    2418        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2419        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2420        body = "".join(
    2421            (
    2422                partition,
    2423                order,
    2424                measures,
    2425                rows,
    2426                after,
    2427                pattern,
    2428                define,
    2429            )
    2430        )
    2431        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2432        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2433        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2434
    2435    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2436        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2437
    2438        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2439            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2440        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2441            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2442
    2443        return csv(
    2444            *sqls,
    2445            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2446            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2447            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2448            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2449            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2450            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2451            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2452            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2453            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2454            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2455            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2456            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2457            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2458            sep="",
    2459        )
    2460
    2461    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2462        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2463        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2464
    2465    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2466        return ""
    2467
    2468    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2469        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2470    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2471        return [
    2472            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2473            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2474        ]
    2475
    2476    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2477        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2478        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2479        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2480
    2481    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2482        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2483        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2484            into.pop()
    2485
    2486        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2487        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2488        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2489        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2490
    2491        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2492        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2493            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2494            limit.pop()
    2495        else:
    2496            top = ""
    2497
    2498        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2499
    2500        if kind:
    2501            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2502                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2503            else:
    2504                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2505                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2506                        sqls=[
    2507                            self.sql(
    2508                                exp.Struct(
    2509                                    expressions=[
    2510                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2511                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2512                                        else e
    2513                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2514                                    ]
    2515                                )
    2516                            )
    2517                        ]
    2518                    )
    2519                kind = ""
    2520
    2521        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2522        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2523
    2524        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2525        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2526        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2527        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2528        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2529            expression,
    2530            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2531            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2532            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2533        )
    2534
    2535        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2536        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2537            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2538            expression.pop_comments()
    2539
    2540        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2541
    2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2543            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2544                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2545            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2546                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2547            else:
    2548                table_kind = ""
    2549            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2550
    2551        return sql
    2552
    2553    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2555        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2556        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2557
    2558    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2559        if expression.expressions:
    2560            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2561        return ""
    2562
    2563    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2564        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2565        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2566        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2567        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2568        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2569        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2570        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2571
    2572    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2574        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2575
    2576    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2578        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2579        if kind:
    2580            kind = f"{kind}."
    2581        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2582
    2583    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2584        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2585
    2586    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2587        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2588        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2589        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2590        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2591            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2592
    2593            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2594            expression.set("sample", None)
    2595
    2596        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2597        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2598        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2599
    2600    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2601        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2602        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2603
    2604    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2605        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2606
    2607        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2608        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2609
    2610        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2611            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2612                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2613
    2614        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2615            columns = alias.columns
    2616            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2617        else:
    2618            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2619
    2620        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2621        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2622            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2623        else:
    2624            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2625                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2626            elif offset:
    2627                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2628            else:
    2629                suffix = alias
    2630
    2631        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2632
    2633    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2634        return ""
    2635
    2636    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2637        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2638        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2639
    2640    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2642        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2643        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2644        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2645        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2647        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2648
    2649        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2650
    2651        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2652        if first is None:
    2653            first = ""
    2654        else:
    2655            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2656
    2657        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2658            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2659
    2660        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2661        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2662
    2663    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2664        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2665        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2666
    2667    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2669        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2670        end = (
    2671            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2672            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2673        )
    2674        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2675
    2676    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2678        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2679        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2680
    2681    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2683        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2684        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2685        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2686
    2687    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2688        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2689    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2690        return apply_index_offset(
    2691            expression.this,
    2692            expression.expressions,
    2693            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2694        )
    2695
    2696    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2697        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2698        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2699        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2700
    2701    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2702        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2703
    2704    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2706        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2707            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2708                this = self.wrap(this)
    2709            return f"ANY{this}"
    2710        return f"ANY {this}"
    2711
    2712    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2713        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2714
    2715    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2717        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2718
    2719        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2720            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2721            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2722
    2723        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2724
    2725        if default:
    2726            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2727
    2728        statements.append("END")
    2729
    2730        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2731            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2732
    2733        return " ".join(statements)
    2734
    2735    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2738        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2739
    2740    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2741        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2742        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2743        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2744
    2745    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2747        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2748        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2749
    2750    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2751        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2752
    2753        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2754            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2755        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2756            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2757        else:
    2758            func_name = "TRIM"
    2759
    2760        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2761
    2762    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2763        args = expression.expressions
    2764        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2765            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2766
    2767        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2768            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2769
    2770        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2771            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2772
    2773        return args
    2774
    2775    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2776        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2777
    2778        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2779        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2780            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2781
    2782        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2783
    2784    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2785        return self.func(
    2786            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2787        )
    2788
    2789    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2790        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2791        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2792
    2793    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2794        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2795        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2796        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2797        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2798        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2799        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2800        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2801        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2802
    2803    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2804        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2805        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2806        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2807        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2808
    2809    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2810        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2811
    2812    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2813        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2814        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2815        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2816
    2817    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2818        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2819
    2820    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2821        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2822
    2823        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2824            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2825
    2826        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2827            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2828
    2829        return path
    2830
    2831    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2832        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2833            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2834            if not callable(transform):
    2835                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2836                return ""
    2837
    2838            return transform(self, expression)
    2839
    2840        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2841            return str(expression)
    2842
    2843        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2844            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2845            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2846        else:
    2847            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2848            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2849
    2850        return escaped
    2851
    2852    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2854
    2855    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2856        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2857        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2858
    2859        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2860        if unique_keys is not None:
    2861            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2862        else:
    2863            unique_keys = ""
    2864
    2865        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2866        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2867        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2868        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2869
    2870        return self.func(
    2871            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2872            *expression.expressions,
    2873            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2874        )
    2875
    2876    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2877        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2878
    2879    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2880        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2881        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2882        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2883        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2884        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2885        return self.func(
    2886            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2887        )
    2888
    2889    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2891        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2892        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2893        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2894        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2895        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2896        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2897        return self.func(
    2898            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2899            this,
    2900            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2901        )
    2902
    2903    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2904        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2905        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2906        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2907
    2908        if nested_schema:
    2909            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2910
    2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2912        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2913        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2914        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2915
    2916    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2917        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2918
    2919    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2922        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2923        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2924        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2925        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2926        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2927        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2928        return self.func(
    2929            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2930        )
    2931
    2932    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2934        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2935        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2936        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2937        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2938        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2939
    2940    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2942        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2943        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2944        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2945        with_ = (
    2946            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2947            if expressions
    2948            else ""
    2949        )
    2950        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2951
    2952    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2953        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2954        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2955        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2956        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2957
    2958        if query:
    2959            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2960        elif unnest:
    2961            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2962        elif field:
    2963            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2964        else:
    2965            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2966
    2967        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2968
    2969    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2970        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2971
    2972    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2973        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2974        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2975            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2976        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2977
    2978        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2979            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2980            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2981
    2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2983        if this:
    2984            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2985            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2986
    2987        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2988
    2989    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2990        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2991
    2992    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2995        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2996        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2997        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2998        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2999
    3000    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3001        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3002        parent = expression.parent
    3003        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3004        return self.func(
    3005            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3006        )
    3007
    3008    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3009        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3010        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    3011
    3012    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3013        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3014        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3015        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3016        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    3017
    3018    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3019        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3020
    3021    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3022        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3023        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3025
    3026    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3027        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3028
    3029        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3030        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3031
    3032        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3033            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3034        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3035            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3036
    3037        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3038
    3039    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3040        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3041
    3042    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3044        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3045        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3046
    3047    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3049        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3050        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3051
    3052    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3054        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3055        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3056
    3057    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3058        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3059
    3060    def and_sql(
    3061        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3062    ) -> str:
    3063        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3064
    3065    def or_sql(
    3066        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3067    ) -> str:
    3068        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3069
    3070    def xor_sql(
    3071        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3072    ) -> str:
    3073        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3074
    3075    def connector_sql(
    3076        self,
    3077        expression: exp.Connector,
    3078        op: str,
    3079        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3080    ) -> str:
    3081        if stack is not None:
    3082            if expression.expressions:
    3083                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3084            else:
    3085                stack.append(expression.right)
    3086                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3087                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3088                        if comment:
    3089                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3090                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3091            return op
    3092
    3093        stack = [expression]
    3094        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3095        ops = set()
    3096
    3097        while stack:
    3098            node = stack.pop()
    3099            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3100                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3101            else:
    3102                sql = self.sql(node)
    3103                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3104                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3105                else:
    3106                    sqls.append(sql)
    3107
    3108        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3109        return sep.join(sqls)
    3110
    3111    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3112        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3113
    3114    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3115        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3116
    3117    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3118        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3119
    3120    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3121        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3122
    3123    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3124        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3125
    3126    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3127        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3128
    3129    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3130        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3131        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3132        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3133        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3134        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3135        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3136        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3137
    3138    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3139        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3140        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3141
    3142    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3143        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3144            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3146
    3147    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3148        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3149
    3150    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3152        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3153        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3154        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3155        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3156        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3157
    3158    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3160        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3161        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3162        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3163        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3164        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3165        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3166        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3167        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3168
    3169    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3171        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3172        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3173        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3174
    3175        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3176            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3177
    3178        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3179
    3180    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3181        return "BEGIN"
    3182
    3183    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3184        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3185        if chain is not None:
    3186            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3187
    3188        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3189
    3190    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3191        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3192        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3193        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3194
    3195    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3197
    3198        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3199        if dtype:
    3200            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3201            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3202            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3203            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3204            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3205
    3206        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3207        if default:
    3208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3209
    3210        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3211        if comment:
    3212            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3213
    3214        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3215        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3216
    3217        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3218            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3219
    3220        if allow_null is not None:
    3221            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3222            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3223
    3224        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3225
    3226    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3228        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3229            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3230        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3231
    3232    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3233        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3236        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3237        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3238
    3239    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3240        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3241            # Remove db from tables
    3242            expression = expression.transform(
    3243                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3244            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3246        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3247
    3248    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3249        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3250        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3251        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3252        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3253
    3254    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3255        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3256        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3257
    3258    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3259        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3260
    3261        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3262            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3263        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3264            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3265        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3267        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3268            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3269        else:
    3270            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3271
    3272        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3273        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3274        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3275        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3276        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3277        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3278        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3279        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3280
    3281        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3282
    3283    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3284        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3285            return self.expressions(
    3286                expression,
    3287                key="actions",
    3288                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3289                skip_first=True,
    3290            )
    3291        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3292
    3293    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3294        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3295        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3296        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3297
    3298    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3299        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3300
    3301    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3302        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3303
    3304        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3305            case = exp.case()
    3306            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3307                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3308            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3309
    3310        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3311
    3312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3314        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3315
    3316    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3317        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3318
    3319    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3320        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3321
    3322    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3323        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3324        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3325        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3326        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3327
    3328    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3329        return self.sql(
    3330            exp.Cast(
    3331                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3332                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3333            )
    3334        )
    3335
    3336    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3337        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3338            return self.func(
    3339                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3340            )
    3341        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3342
    3343    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3344        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3345
    3346        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3347            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3348
    3349        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3350            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3351                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3352
    3353        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3354            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3355                return self.sql(
    3356                    exp.cast(
    3357                        l / r,
    3358                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3359                    )
    3360                )
    3361
    3362        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3363
    3364    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3365        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3366
    3367    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3368        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3369
    3370    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3371        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3372
    3373    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3374        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3375
    3376    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3377        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3378
    3379    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3380        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3381
    3382    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3383        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3384
    3385    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3386        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3387
    3388    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3389        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3390
    3391    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3392        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3393
    3394    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3395        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3396
    3397    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3398        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3399            return self.sql(
    3400                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3401            )
    3402        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3403
    3404    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3405        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3406
    3407    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3408        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3409
    3410    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3411        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3412
    3413    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3414        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3415
    3416    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3417        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3418
    3419    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3420        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3421
    3422    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3423        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3424
    3425    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3426        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3427
    3428    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3429        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3430
    3431    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3432        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3433
    3434    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3435        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3436
    3437    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3438        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3439
    3440    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3441        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3442
    3443    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3444        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3445            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3446            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3447
    3448        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3449
    3450    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3451        this = expression.this
    3452        expr = expression.expression
    3453
    3454        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3455            this, expr = expr, this
    3456        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3457            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3458                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3459
    3460            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3461
    3462        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3463
    3464    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3465        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3466        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3468        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3469        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3470
    3471    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3472        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3473        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3474        binary_type = type(expression)
    3475
    3476        while stack:
    3477            node = stack.pop()
    3478
    3479            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3480                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3481                if op_func:
    3482                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3483
    3484                stack.append(node.right)
    3485                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3486                stack.append(node.left)
    3487            else:
    3488                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3489
    3490        return "".join(sqls)
    3491
    3492    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3493        args = []
    3494
    3495        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3496            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3497
    3498            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3499                for value in arg_value:
    3500                    args.append(value)
    3501            elif arg_value is not None:
    3502                args.append(arg_value)
    3503
    3504        if self.normalize_functions:
    3505            name = expression.sql_name()
    3506        else:
    3507            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3508
    3509        return self.func(name, *args)
    3510
    3511    def func(
    3512        self,
    3513        name: str,
    3514        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3515        prefix: str = "(",
    3516        suffix: str = ")",
    3517        normalize: bool = True,
    3518    ) -> str:
    3519        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3520        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3521
    3522    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3523        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3524            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3525        )
    3526        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3527            return self.indent(
    3528                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3529            )
    3530        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
    3531
    3532    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3533        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3534
    3535    def format_time(
    3536        self,
    3537        expression: exp.Expression,
    3538        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3539        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3540    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3541        return format_time(
    3542            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3543            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3544            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3545        )
    3546
    3547    def expressions(
    3548        self,
    3549        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3550        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3551        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3552        flat: bool = False,
    3553        indent: bool = True,
    3554        skip_first: bool = False,
    3555        skip_last: bool = False,
    3556        sep: str = ", ",
    3557        prefix: str = "",
    3558        dynamic: bool = False,
    3559        new_line: bool = False,
    3560    ) -> str:
    3561        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3562
    3563        if not expressions:
    3564            return ""
    3565
    3566        if flat:
    3567            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3568
    3569        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3570        result_sqls = []
    3571
    3572        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3573            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3574            if not sql:
    3575                continue
    3576
    3577            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3578
    3579            if self.pretty:
    3580                if self.leading_comma:
    3581                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3582                else:
    3583                    result_sqls.append(
    3584                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3585                    )
    3586            else:
    3587                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3588
    3589        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3590            if new_line:
    3591                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3592                result_sqls.append("")
    3593            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3594        else:
    3595            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3596
    3597        return (
    3598            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3599            if indent
    3600            else result_sql
    3601        )
    3602
    3603    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3604        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3605        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3606        if flat:
    3607            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3608        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3609
    3610    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3611        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3612        if not property_name:
    3613            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3614        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3615
    3616    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3617        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3618
    3619    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3620        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3621
    3622    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3624        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3625        expressions = (
    3626            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3627        )
    3628        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
    3629
    3630    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3633        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3634
    3635    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3636        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3637
    3638    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3639        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3640        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3641        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3642        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3643
    3644        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3645        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3646            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3647            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3648            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3649            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3650        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3651            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3652                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3653            else:
    3654                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3655        else:
    3656            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3657        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3658
    3659    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3660        table = expression.this
    3661        table_alias = ""
    3662
    3663        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3664        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3665            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3666            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3667
    3668        this = self.sql(table)
    3669        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3670        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3671        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3672        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3673        if returning:
    3674            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3675
    3676        sep = self.sep()
    3677
    3678        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3679            expression,
    3680            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3681        )
    3682
    3683    @unsupported_args("format")
    3684    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3685        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3686
    3687    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3688        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3689            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3690            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3691
    3692        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3693        if not fmt:
    3694            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3695            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3696
    3697        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3698
    3699    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3702        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3703        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3704        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3705
    3706    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3708        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3709        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3710        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3711
    3712    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3713        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3714
    3715    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3716        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3717
    3718    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3719    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3720        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3721        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3722        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3723        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3724        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3725        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3726        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3727
    3728    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3729        return ""
    3730
    3731    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3732        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3733        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3734        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3735        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3736        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3737
    3738    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3740        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3741
    3742        if having:
    3743            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3744
    3745        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3746
    3747    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3748        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3749        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3750        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3751        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3752        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3753        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3754        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3755        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3756        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3757        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3758        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3759        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3760        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3761
    3762    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3763        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3764        if key_block_size:
    3765            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3766
    3767        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3768        if using:
    3769            return f"USING {using}"
    3770
    3771        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3772        if parser:
    3773            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3774
    3775        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3776        if comment:
    3777            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3778
    3779        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3780        if visible is not None:
    3781            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3782
    3783        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3784        if engine_attr:
    3785            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3786
    3787        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3788        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3789            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3790
    3791        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3792        return ""
    3793
    3794    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3795        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3796        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3797
    3798    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3799        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3800        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3802        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3803        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3804        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3805        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3806        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3807        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3808        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3809        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3810
    3811    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3812        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3813            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3814
    3815        case = exp.Case().when(
    3816            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3817            expression.args["true"],
    3818            copy=False,
    3819        )
    3820        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3821        if else_cond:
    3822            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3823
    3824        return self.sql(case)
    3825
    3826    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3828        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3829        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3830        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3831        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3832        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3833
    3834    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3836
    3837    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3838        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3839
    3840    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3841        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3842        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3843        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3844        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3845        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3846        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3847
    3848    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3850        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3851        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3852
    3853    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3855        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3856        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3857
    3858    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3859        arg = expression.this
    3860        if not arg.type:
    3861            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3862
    3863            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3864
    3865        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3866            return self.sql(arg)
    3867
    3868        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3869        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3870
    3871    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3872        this = expression.this
    3873        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3874            return self.sql(this)
    3875
    3876        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3877
    3878    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3879        this = expression.this
    3880        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3881            return self.sql(this)
    3882
    3883        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3884
    3885    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3886        this = expression.this
    3887        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3888
    3889        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3890            return self.sql(
    3891                exp.cast(
    3892                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3893                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3894                )
    3895            )
    3896
    3897        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3898            return self.sql(this)
    3899
    3900        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3901
    3902    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3903        return self.sql(
    3904            exp.func(
    3905                "DATEDIFF",
    3906                expression.this,
    3907                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3908                "day",
    3909            )
    3910        )
    3911
    3912    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3913        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3914            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3915
    3916        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3917        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3918            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3919
    3920        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3921
    3922    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3923        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3924
    3925        return self.func(
    3926            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3927        )
    3928
    3929    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3930        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3931            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3932            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3933            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3934            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3935
    3936        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3937
    3938        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3939        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3940            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3941
    3942        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3943
    3944    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3945        expression.set(
    3946            "expressions",
    3947            [
    3948                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3949                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3950                else e
    3951                for e in expression.expressions
    3952            ],
    3953        )
    3954
    3955        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3956
    3957    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3958        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3959        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3960
    3961        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3962
    3963    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3964        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3965        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3966
    3967        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3968
    3969        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3970        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3971
    3972        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3973        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3974
    3975        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3976        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3977
    3978        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3979        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3980
    3981        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3982
    3983    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3984    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3985    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3986        to = expression.this
    3987        value = expression.expression
    3988        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3989        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3990        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3991
    3992        if not to or not value:
    3993            return ""
    3994
    3995        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3996        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3997            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3998
    3999        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4000        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4001
    4002        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4003        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4004            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4005
    4006            style_value = style.name
    4007            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4008            if not converted_style:
    4009                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4010
    4011            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4012
    4013            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4014                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4015            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4016                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4017            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4018                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4019            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4020                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4021
    4022        if not transformed:
    4023            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4024
    4025        return self.sql(transformed)
    4026
    4027    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4028        this = expression.this
    4029        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4030            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4031            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4032
    4033        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4034            return f".{this}"
    4035
    4036        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4037        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    4038
    4039    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4040        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4041        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4042
    4043    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4044        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4045            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4046
    4047            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4048
    4049        return expression
    4050
    4051    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4052        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4053            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4054            mods = sorted(
    4055                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4056                key=lambda x: 0
    4057                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4058                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4059            )
    4060
    4061            if mods:
    4062                mod = mods[0]
    4063                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4064                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4065                mod.this.replace(this)
    4066                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4067
    4068            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4069
    4070            if agg_func:
    4071                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4072
    4073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4074
    4075    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4076        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4077        if self.pretty:
    4078            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4079        return string
    4080
    4081    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4082        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4083
    4084        if expression.expressions:
    4085            upper = option.upper()
    4086
    4087            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4088            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4089
    4090            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4091            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4092            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4093            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4094
    4095        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4096
    4097        if not value:
    4098            return option
    4099
    4100        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4101
    4102        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4103
    4104    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4105        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4106        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4107            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4108            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4109            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4110        else:
    4111            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4112            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4113            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4114
    4115        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4116        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4117
    4118        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4119        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4120
    4121        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4122        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4123
    4124        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4125        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4126
    4127        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4128
    4129    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4131        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4132
    4133        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4134        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4135        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4136        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4137
    4138        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4139        params = self.expressions(
    4140            expression,
    4141            key="params",
    4142            sep=sep,
    4143            new_line=True,
    4144            skip_last=True,
    4145            skip_first=True,
    4146            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4147        )
    4148
    4149        if params:
    4150            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4151                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4152            elif not self.pretty:
    4153                params = f" {params}"
    4154
    4155        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4156
    4157    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4158        return ""
    4159
    4160    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4161        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4162        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4163        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4164        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4165        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4166
    4167        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4168            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4169
    4170        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4171
    4172    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4173        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4174    ) -> str:
    4175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4176        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4177        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4178        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4179
    4180    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4182        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4183        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4184
    4185    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4186        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4187
    4188    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4190        expr = expression.expression
    4191
    4192        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4193            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4194            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4195        else:
    4196            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4197
    4198        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4199
    4200    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4201        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4202            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4203
    4204        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4205
    4206    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4207        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4208        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4209
    4210        if lower and upper:
    4211            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4212        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4213
    4214    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4215        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4216        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4217        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4218        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4219        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4220        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4221
    4222        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4223
    4224    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4225        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4226
    4227        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4228        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4229            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4230
    4231        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4232
    4233    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4234        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4235        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4236
    4237    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4238        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4239
    4240        parent = expression.parent
    4241        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4242            parent = parent.parent
    4243
    4244        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4245            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4246
    4247        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4248            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4249
    4250        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4251
    4252    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4253        exprs = expression.expressions
    4254        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4255            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4256        else:
    4257            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4258
    4259        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
    4260
    4261    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4262        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4263            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4264
    4265        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4266        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4267        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4268
    4269        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4270            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4271                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4272            )
    4273
    4274        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4275
    4276        return self.sql(expr)
    4277
    4278    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4280        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4281
    4282        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4283
    4284        if _with is None:
    4285            with_sql = ""
    4286        elif not _with:
    4287            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4288        else:
    4289            with_sql = " WITH"
    4290
    4291        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4292
    4293        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4294
    4295    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4296        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4297            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4298
    4299        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4300        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4301        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4302
    4303        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4304        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4305
    4306        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4307
    4308    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4309        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4310        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4311        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4312        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4313        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4314
    4315    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4316        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4317        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4318        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4319        return res
    4320
    4321    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4322        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4323        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4324        empty = (
    4325            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4326            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4327            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4328        )
    4329
    4330        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4331        error = (
    4332            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4333            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4334            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4335        )
    4336
    4337        if error and empty:
    4338            error = (
    4339                f"{empty} {error}"
    4340                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4341                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4342            )
    4343            empty = ""
    4344
    4345        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4346
    4347        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4348
    4349    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4351        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4352
    4353        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4354        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4355
    4356        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4357        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4358
    4359        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4360
    4361        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4362
    4363    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4364        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4365
    4366        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4367            parent = expression.parent
    4368            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4369                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4370                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4371            else:
    4372                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4373                this = expression.this
    4374                this_sql = (
    4375                    self.expressions(this)
    4376                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4377                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4378                )
    4379                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4380
    4381        return array_agg
    4382
    4383    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4385        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4386
    4387        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4388
    4389    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4390        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4391
    4392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4393        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4394
    4395        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4396        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4397
    4398        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4399
    4400        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4401
    4402        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4403
    4404    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4406        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4407        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4408
    4409        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4410
    4411    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4413
    4414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4415        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4416
    4417        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4418
    4419    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4420        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4421        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4422            func = f"*{func}"
    4423
    4424        return func
    4425
    4426    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4428        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4429        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4430        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4431        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4432
    4433        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
    4434
    4435    @unsupported_args("format")
    4436    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4437        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    4438
    4439    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4440        this = expression.this
    4441        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4442
    4443        if zone:
    4444            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4445            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4446            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4447            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4448                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4449            )
    4450
    4451        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None) View Source

    642    def __init__(
    643        self,
    644        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    645        identify: str | bool = False,
    646        normalize: bool = False,
    647        pad: int = 2,
    648        indent: int = 2,
    649        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    650        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    651        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    652        leading_comma: bool = False,
    653        max_text_width: int = 80,
    654        comments: bool = True,
    655        dialect: DialectType = None,
    656    ):
    657        import sqlglot
    658        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    659
    660        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    661        self.identify = identify
    662        self.normalize = normalize
    663        self.pad = pad
    664        self._indent = indent
    665        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    666        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    667        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    668        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    669        self.comments = comments
    670        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    671
    672        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    673        self.normalize_functions = (
    674            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    675        )
    676
    677        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    678        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    679            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    680        )
    681        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
    682
    683        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
    684
    685        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
    686        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Command'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    688    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    689        """
    690        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    691
    692        Args:
    693            expression: The syntax tree.
    694            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    695                it is safer to copy.
    696
    697        Returns:
    698            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    699        """
    700        if copy:
    701            expression = expression.copy()
    702
    703        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    704
    705        self.unsupported_messages = []
    706        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    707
    708        if self.pretty:
    709            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    710
    711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    712            return sql
    713
    714        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    715            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    716                logger.warning(msg)
    717        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    718            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    719
    720        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    722    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    723        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    724        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    725
    726        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    727            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    728
    729            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    730
    731        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    744    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    745        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    746            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    747        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    749    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    750        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    752    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    753        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    755    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    756        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    757        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    758        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    760    def maybe_comment(
    761        self,
    762        sql: str,
    763        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    764        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    765        separated: bool = False,
    766    ) -> str:
    767        comments = (
    768            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    769            if self.comments
    770            else None
    771        )
    772
    773        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    774            return sql
    775
    776        comments_sql = " ".join(
    777            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    778        )
    779
    780        if not comments_sql:
    781            return sql
    782
    783        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    784
    785        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    786            return (
    787                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    788                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    789                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    790            )
    791
    792        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    794    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    795        this_sql = (
    796            self.sql(expression)
    797            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    798            else self.sql(expression, "this")
    799        )
    800        if not this_sql:
    801            return "()"
    802
    803        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
    804        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    806    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    807        original = self.identify
    808        self.identify = False
    809        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    810        self.identify = original
    811        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    813    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    814        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    815            return name.upper()
    816        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    817            return name.lower()
    818        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    820    def indent(
    821        self,
    822        sql: str,
    823        level: int = 0,
    824        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    825        skip_first: bool = False,
    826        skip_last: bool = False,
    827    ) -> str:
    828        if not self.pretty or not sql:
    829            return sql
    830
    831        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    832        lines = sql.split("\n")
    833
    834        return "\n".join(
    835            (
    836                line
    837                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    838                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    839            )
    840            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    841        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    843    def sql(
    844        self,
    845        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    846        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    847        comment: bool = True,
    848    ) -> str:
    849        if not expression:
    850            return ""
    851
    852        if isinstance(expression, str):
    853            return expression
    854
    855        if key:
    856            value = expression.args.get(key)
    857            if value:
    858                return self.sql(value)
    859            return ""
    860
    861        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    862
    863        if callable(transform):
    864            sql = transform(self, expression)
    865        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    866            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    867
    868            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    869                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    870            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    871                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    872            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    873                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    874            else:
    875                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    876        else:
    877            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    878
    879        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str: View Source

    881    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    882        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    883        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    884        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str: View Source

    886    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    887        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    888        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    889        options = expression.args.get("options")
    890        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    891        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    892        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    893        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str: View Source

    896    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    897        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    898            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    899        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    900        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    902    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    903        return ".".join(
    904            self.sql(part)
    905            for part in (
    906                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    907                expression.args.get("db"),
    908                expression.args.get("table"),
    909                expression.args.get("this"),
    910            )
    911            if part
    912        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    914    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    915        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    916
    917        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
    918            join_mark = ""
    919            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    920
    921        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str: View Source

    923    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    925        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    926        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    927        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    929    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    930        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    931        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    932        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    933        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    934        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    935        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    936        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    937        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    938
    939        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    940            kind = ""
    941
    942        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    944    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    946        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    947        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    949    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    951        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    952            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    953        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    954            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    955        else:
    956            persisted = ""
    957        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    959    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    960        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    962    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    963        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    964            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    965        else:
    966            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    967
    968        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

     970    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     971        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     972    ) -> str:
     973        this = ""
     974        if expression.this is not None:
     975            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     976            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     977
     978        start = expression.args.get("start")
     979        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     980        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     981        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     982        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     983        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     984        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     985        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     986        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     987        cycle_sql = ""
     988
     989        if cycle is not None:
     990            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     991            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     992
     993        sequence_opts = ""
     994        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     995            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     996            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     997
     998        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     999        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    1000
    1001        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1003    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1004        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1005    ) -> str:
    1006        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1007        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1008        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1010    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1011        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1012    ) -> str:
    1013        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1015    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1016        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1018    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1019        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1021    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1022        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1023        if desc is not None:
    1024            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1025        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1027    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1029        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1030        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1031        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1032        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1033        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1034        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1035        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    1037    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1038        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str: View Source

    1040    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1041        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1042        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1043        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1044        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1045
    1046        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1047
    1048        properties_sql = ""
    1049        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1050            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1051        ):
    1052            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1053                exp.Properties(
    1054                    expressions=[
    1055                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1056                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1057                    ]
    1058                )
    1059            )
    1060
    1061            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1062                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1063            elif not self.pretty:
    1064                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1065                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1066
    1067        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1068        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1069
    1070        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1071        if expression_sql:
    1072            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1073
    1074            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1075                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1076                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1077                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1078                        exp.Properties(
    1079                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1080                        ),
    1081                        wrapped=False,
    1082                    )
    1083                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1084                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1085
    1086        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1087        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1088            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1089                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1090                wrapped=False,
    1091                prefix=" ",
    1092            )
    1093
    1094        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1095        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1096        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1097
    1098        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1099        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1100        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1101
    1102        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1103        if clustered is None:
    1104            clustered_sql = ""
    1105        elif clustered:
    1106            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1107        else:
    1108            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1109
    1110        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1111        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1112            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1113                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1114                sep=" ",
    1115                prefix=" ",
    1116                wrapped=False,
    1117            )
    1118
    1119        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1120
    1121        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1122        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1123            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1124                exp.Properties(
    1125                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1126                ),
    1127                sep=" ",
    1128                prefix=" ",
    1129                wrapped=False,
    1130            )
    1131
    1132        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1133        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1134        no_schema_binding = (
    1135            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1136        )
    1137
    1138        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1139        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1140
    1141        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1142        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str: View Source

    1144    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1145        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1146        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1147        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1148        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1149        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1150        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1151        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1152        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1153        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1154        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1155
    1156        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1157        if cache is None:
    1158            cache_str = ""
    1159        elif cache is True:
    1160            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1161        else:
    1162            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1163
    1164        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1165        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1166
    1167        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str: View Source

    1169    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1171        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1172        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1173        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str: View Source

    1175    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1176        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1177        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1178        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1179        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1180        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str: View Source

    1182    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1183        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1184        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1186    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1187        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1188        if with_:
    1189            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1190        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str: View Source

    1192    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1193        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1194        recursive = (
    1195            "RECURSIVE "
    1196            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1197            else ""
    1198        )
    1199
    1200        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str: View Source

    1202    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1203        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    1204        if alias:
    1205            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
    1206
    1207        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1208
    1209        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1210        if materialized is False:
    1211            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1212        elif materialized:
    1213            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1214
    1215        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str: View Source

    1217    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1218        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1219        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1220        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1221
    1222        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1223            columns = ""
    1224            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1225
    1226        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1227            alias = self._next_name()
    1228
    1229        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str: View Source

    1231    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1233        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1234            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1235        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str: View Source

    1237    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1239        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1240            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1241        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str: View Source

    1243    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1245        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1246            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1247        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str: View Source

    1249    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1251        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1252
    1253        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1254            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1255            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1256        else:
    1257            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1258            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1259
    1260        if escape:
    1261            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1262            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1263        else:
    1264            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1265            escape_sql = ""
    1266
    1267        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1268            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1269
    1270        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str: View Source

    1272    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1273        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1274        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str: View Source

    1276    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1278        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1279        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1280        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str: View Source

    1282    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1283        nested = ""
    1284        values = ""
    1285        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1286
    1287        type_value = expression.this
    1288        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1289            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1290        else:
    1291            type_sql = (
    1292                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1293                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1294                else type_value
    1295            )
    1296
    1297        if interior:
    1298            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1299                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1300                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1301                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1302                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1303                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1304            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1305                nested = f" {interior}"
    1306            else:
    1307                nested = f"({interior})"
    1308
    1309        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1310        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1311            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1312            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1313        ):
    1314            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1315
    1316        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str: View Source

    1318    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1319        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1320        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1321        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1322        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str: View Source

    1324    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1326        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1327        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1328        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1329        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1330        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1331        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1332        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1333        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1334        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1335        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1336        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1337            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1338        else:
    1339            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1340        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str: View Source

    1342    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1344        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1345        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1346        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1347        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1348        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1349        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1350        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1351        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1352        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1353        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1354        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1355        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1356        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1357        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str: View Source

    1359    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1360        op_type = type(expression)
    1361        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1362
    1363        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1364        if (
    1365            distinct is False
    1366            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1367            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1368        ):
    1369            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1370
    1371        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1372
    1373        if distinct is None:
    1374            distinct = default_distinct
    1375            if distinct is None:
    1376                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1377
    1378        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1379            kind = ""
    1380        else:
    1381            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1382
    1383        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1384        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str: View Source

    1386    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1387        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1388            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1389            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1390
    1391            if limit or order:
    1392                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1393                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1394                )
    1395
    1396                if limit:
    1397                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1398                if order:
    1399                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1400                return self.sql(select)
    1401
    1402        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1403        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1404
    1405        while stack:
    1406            node = stack.pop()
    1407
    1408            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1409                stack.append(node.expression)
    1410                stack.append(
    1411                    self.maybe_comment(
    1412                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1413                    )
    1414                )
    1415                stack.append(node.this)
    1416            else:
    1417                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1418
    1419        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1420        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1421        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str: View Source

    1423    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1424        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1425        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1426        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1427        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1428        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1429            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1430        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1431        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str: View Source

    1433    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1434        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1435            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1436            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1437            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1438
    1439        agg = expression.this
    1440        agg_arg = agg.this
    1441        cond = expression.expression.this
    1442        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1443        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str: View Source

    1445    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1446        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1447            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1448            return ""
    1449
    1450        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str: View Source

    1452    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1453        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1454        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1455        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1456        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1457        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1458        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1459        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1460        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1461        if include:
    1462            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1463        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1464        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1465        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1466        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1467        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1468        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1469
    1470        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str: View Source

    1472    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1473        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1474        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1475        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1476        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1477        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1478        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1479        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1480
    1481        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1482
    1483        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1484        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str: View Source

    1486    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1487        text = expression.name
    1488        lower = text.lower()
    1489        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1490        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1491        if (
    1492            expression.quoted
    1493            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1494            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1495            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1496        ):
    1497            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1498        return text

def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str: View Source

    1500    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1502        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1504
    1505        return text

def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str: View Source

    1507    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1508        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1509        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1510            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1511        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str: View Source

    1513    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1514        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1515        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1516        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1517        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1518        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1520    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1521        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1522        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str: View Source

    1524    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1525        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1527    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1528        root_properties = []
    1529        with_properties = []
    1530
    1531        for p in expression.expressions:
    1532            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1533            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1534                with_properties.append(p)
    1535            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1536                root_properties.append(p)
    1537
    1538        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1539        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1540
    1541        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1542            with_props = " " + with_props
    1543
    1544        return root_props + with_props

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1546    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1547        if properties.expressions:
    1548            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1549        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1551    def properties(
    1552        self,
    1553        properties: exp.Properties,
    1554        prefix: str = "",
    1555        sep: str = ", ",
    1556        suffix: str = "",
    1557        wrapped: bool = True,
    1558    ) -> str:
    1559        if properties.expressions:
    1560            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1561            if expressions:
    1562                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1563                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1564        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1566    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1567        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1569    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1570        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1571        for p in properties.expressions:
    1572            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1573            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1574                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1575            else:
    1576                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1577
    1578        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1580    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1581        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1582            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1583        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    1585    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1586        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1587        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1588            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1589
    1590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1591        if not property_name:
    1592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1593
    1594        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1596    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1597        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1598            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1599            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1600
    1601            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1602            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1603                like = f"({like})"
    1604
    1605            return like
    1606
    1607        if expression.expressions:
    1608            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1609
    1610        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1611        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str: View Source

    1613    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1614        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1615        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1616        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str: View Source

    1618    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1619        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1620        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1621        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1622        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1623        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1624        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1625        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str: View Source

    1627    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1628        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1629        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1630        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str: View Source

    1632    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1633        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1634            property = "DEFAULT"
    1635        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1636            property = "ON"
    1637        else:
    1638            property = "OFF"
    1639        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str: View Source

    1641    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1642        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1643            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1644        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1645            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1646
    1647        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1648        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1650    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1651        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1652        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1653        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1654        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1655            if default:
    1656                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1657            elif minimum:
    1658                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1659            else:
    1660                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1661            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1662        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1663        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1664        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str: View Source

    1666    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1667        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1668        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1669        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1670        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1671        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1672
    1673        if autotemp is not None:
    1674            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1675        elif always:
    1676            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1677        elif default:
    1678            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1679        elif manual:
    1680            prop = "MANUAL"
    1681        elif never:
    1682            prop = "NEVER"
    1683        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1685    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1686        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1687        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1688        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1689        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1690        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1691        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1692        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str: View Source

    1694    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1695        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1696            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1697        if expression.this:
    1698            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1699            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1700            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1701
    1702        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1703        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1704        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str: View Source

    1706    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1708
    1709        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1710        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1711            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1712        else:
    1713            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1714
    1715        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1717    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1718        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1719        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1720        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1721        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1722        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1723        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1724        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str: View Source

    1726    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1727        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1728        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1729        statistics_sql = ""
    1730        if statistics is not None:
    1731            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1732        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str: View Source

    1734    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1736        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1737        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1738        data_consistency = (
    1739            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1740        )
    1741        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1742        retention_period = (
    1743            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1744        )
    1745
    1746        if this:
    1747            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1748        else:
    1749            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1750
    1751        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1752
    1753        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str: View Source

    1755    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1756        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1757        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1758
    1759        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1760            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1761        else:
    1762            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1763
    1764        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1765        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1766        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1767        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1768        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1769        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1770        if is_function:
    1771            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1772        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1773
    1774        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1775        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1776        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1777        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1778        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1779        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1780        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1781        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1782
    1783        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1784            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1785        else:
    1786            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1787
    1788        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1789        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1790        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1791        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1792
    1793        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1794        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1795
    1796        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1797        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str: View Source

    1799    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1800        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str: View Source

    1802    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1804        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1806        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1807        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str: View Source

    1809    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1810        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str: View Source

    1812    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1813        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str: View Source

    1815    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1816        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1817
    1818        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1819        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1820
    1821        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1822        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1823        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1824
    1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1826        if expressions:
    1827            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1828            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1829
    1830        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str: View Source

    1832    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1833        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str: View Source

    1835    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1836        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1837        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1838        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1839        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1840        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1841        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1842        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1843        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1844        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1845        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1846        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1847        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1848        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1850    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1851        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1853    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1854        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1855        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1856        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1857        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str: View Source

    1859    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1862        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1863        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str: View Source

    1865    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1866        return ".".join(
    1867            self.sql(part)
    1868            for part in (
    1869                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1870                expression.args.get("db"),
    1871                expression.args.get("this"),
    1872            )
    1873            if part is not None
    1874        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1876    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1877        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1878        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1879        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1880        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1881        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1882        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1883        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1884        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1885
    1886        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1887        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1888            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1889            sample_post_alias = ""
    1890        else:
    1891            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1892            sample_post_alias = sample
    1893
    1894        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1895        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1896        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1897        joins = self.indent(
    1898            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1899        )
    1900        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1901
    1902        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1903        if file_format:
    1904            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1905            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1906            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1907
    1908        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1909        if ordinality:
    1910            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1911            alias = ""
    1912
    1913        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1914        if when:
    1915            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1916
    1917        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1918        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1919
    1920        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1921        if rows_from:
    1922            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1923
    1924        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1926    def tablesample_sql(
    1927        self,
    1928        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1929        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1930    ) -> str:
    1931        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1932        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1933        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1934        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1935        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1936        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1937        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1938        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1939        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1940
    1941        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1942        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1943            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1944
    1945        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1946        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1947            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1948
    1949        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1950        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1951            expr = f"({expr})"
    1952
    1953        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str: View Source

    1955    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1956        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1957
    1958        if expression.this:
    1959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1960            if not expressions:
    1961                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1962
    1963            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1964            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1965            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1966            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1967            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1968
    1969        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1970        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1971        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1972
    1973        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1974
    1975        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1976        if include_nulls is not None:
    1977            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1978        else:
    1979            nulls = ""
    1980
    1981        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1982        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1983        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str: View Source

    1985    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1986        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1987        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1988        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1989        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str: View Source

    1991    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1992        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str: View Source

    1994    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1996        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1997        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1998        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1999        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    2000        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2001        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    2002        if self.RETURNING_END:
    2003            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    2004        else:
    2005            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    2006        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2007        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2009    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2010        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2011
    2012        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2013        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2014            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2015            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2016            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2017            values = (
    2018                f"({values})"
    2019                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2020                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2021                else values
    2022            )
    2023            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2024
    2025        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2026        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2027        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2028
    2029        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2030
    2031        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2032            row = tup.expressions
    2033
    2034            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2035                row = [
    2036                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2037                ]
    2038
    2039            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2040
    2041        if self.pretty:
    2042            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2043            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2044            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2045            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2046            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2047
    2048        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2049        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2050        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str: View Source

    2052    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2053        return self.sql(expression, "this")

@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str: View Source

    2055    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2056    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2057        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2058        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2059        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str: View Source

    2061    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2062        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str: View Source

    2064    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2065        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2066        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"

def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str: View Source

    2068    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2069        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2070        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"

def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str: View Source

    2072    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2074        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str: View Source

    2076    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2077        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2078        if group_by_all is True:
    2079            modifier = " ALL"
    2080        elif group_by_all is False:
    2081            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2082        else:
    2083            modifier = ""
    2084
    2085        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2086
    2087        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2088        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2089        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2090
    2091        groupings = csv(
    2092            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2093            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2094            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2095            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2096            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2097        )
    2098
    2099        if (
    2100            expression.expressions
    2101            and groupings
    2102            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2103        ):
    2104            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2105
    2106        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str: View Source

    2108    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2109        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2110        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str: View Source

    2112    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2113        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2114        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2115        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2116        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2117        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2118        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str: View Source

    2120    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2121        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str: View Source

    2123    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2124        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2125            side = None
    2126        else:
    2127            side = expression.side
    2128
    2129        op_sql = " ".join(
    2130            op
    2131            for op in (
    2132                expression.method,
    2133                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2134                side,
    2135                expression.kind,
    2136                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2137            )
    2138            if op
    2139        )
    2140        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2141        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2142        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2143        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2144
    2145        if not on_sql and using:
    2146            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2147
    2148        this = expression.this
    2149        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2150
    2151        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
    2152        if exprs:
    2153            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
    2154
    2155        if on_sql:
    2156            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2157            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2158            if using:
    2159                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2160            else:
    2161                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2162        elif not op_sql:
    2163            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2164                return f" {this_sql}"
    2165
    2166            return f", {this_sql}"
    2167
    2168        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2169            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2170
    2171        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    2173    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2174        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2175        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2176        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    2178    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2179        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2180
    2181        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2182        if cross_apply is True:
    2183            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2184        elif cross_apply is False:
    2185            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2186        else:
    2187            op = ""
    2188
    2189        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    2191    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2193
    2194        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2195            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2196            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2197            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2198            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2199            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2200            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2201
    2202        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2203        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2204        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2206    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2208
    2209        args = [
    2210            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2211            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2212            if e
    2213        ]
    2214
    2215        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2216        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2217        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2218        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2219
    2220        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str: View Source

    2222    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2224        value = expression.expression
    2225        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2226        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2227        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2228        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str: View Source

    2230    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2231        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2232        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2234        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2235        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2236        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2237        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2238        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str: View Source

    2240    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2241        expressions = (
    2242            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2243        )
    2244        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2245        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str: View Source

    2247    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2248        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str: View Source

    2250    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2251        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2252            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2253            return ""
    2254
    2255        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2256        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2257        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2258        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2259
    2260        if wait is not None:
    2261            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2262                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2263            else:
    2264                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2265
    2266        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str: View Source

    2268    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2269        text = expression.this or ""
    2270        if expression.is_string:
    2271            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2272        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2274    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2275        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2276            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2277            text = "".join(
    2278                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2279            )
    2280
    2281        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2282            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2283        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str: View Source

    2285    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2286        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2287        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2288        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2289        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2290        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2291        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2292        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2293        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2294        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2295        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2296        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2298    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2299        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str: View Source

    2301    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2302        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2304    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2306        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2307        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2308        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str: View Source

    2310    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2311        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2312        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2313        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2314        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2315        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2316        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2317        interpolated_values = [
    2318            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2319            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2320        ]
    2321        interpolate = (
    2322            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2323        )
    2324        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str: View Source

    2326    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2327        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str: View Source

    2329    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2330        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str: View Source

    2332    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2333        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str: View Source

    2335    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2336        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2337        asc = not desc
    2338
    2339        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2340        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2341        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2342        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2343        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2344
    2345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2346
    2347        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2348        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2349        if nulls_first and (
    2350            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2351        ):
    2352            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2353        elif (
    2354            nulls_last
    2355            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2356            and not nulls_are_last
    2357        ):
    2358            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2359
    2360        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2361        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2362            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2363            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2364                self.unsupported(
    2365                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2366                )
    2367                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2368            elif (
    2369                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2370                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2371                and (
    2372                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2373                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2374                )
    2375            ):
    2376                self.unsupported(
    2377                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2378                )
    2379                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2380            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2381                if expression.this.is_int:
    2382                    self.unsupported(
    2383                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2384                    )
    2385                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2386                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2387                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2388                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2389
    2390        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2391        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2392
    2393        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str: View Source

    2395    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2396        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2397        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2398
    2399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2400
    2401        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2403    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2404        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2405        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2406        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2407        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2408        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2409        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2410        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2411        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2412        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2413        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2414        definition_sqls = [
    2415            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2416            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2417        ]
    2418        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2419        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2420        body = "".join(
    2421            (
    2422                partition,
    2423                order,
    2424                measures,
    2425                rows,
    2426                after,
    2427                pattern,
    2428                define,
    2429            )
    2430        )
    2431        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2432        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2433        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2435    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2436        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2437
    2438        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2439            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2440        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2441            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2442
    2443        return csv(
    2444            *sqls,
    2445            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2446            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2447            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2448            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2449            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2450            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2451            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2452            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2453            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2454            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2455            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2456            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2457            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2458            sep="",
    2459        )

def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str: View Source

    2461    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2462        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2463        return f" {options}" if options else ""

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str: View Source

    2465    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2466        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2468    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2469        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2470    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2471        return [
    2472            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2473            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2474        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2476    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2477        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2478        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2479        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str: View Source

    2481    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2482        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2483        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2484            into.pop()
    2485
    2486        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2487        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2488        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2489        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2490
    2491        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2492        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2493            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2494            limit.pop()
    2495        else:
    2496            top = ""
    2497
    2498        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2499
    2500        if kind:
    2501            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2502                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2503            else:
    2504                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2505                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2506                        sqls=[
    2507                            self.sql(
    2508                                exp.Struct(
    2509                                    expressions=[
    2510                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2511                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2512                                        else e
    2513                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2514                                    ]
    2515                                )
    2516                            )
    2517                        ]
    2518                    )
    2519                kind = ""
    2520
    2521        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
    2522        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
    2523
    2524        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2525        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2526        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2527        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2528        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2529            expression,
    2530            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
    2531            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2532            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2533        )
    2534
    2535        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
    2536        if expression.args.get("with"):
    2537            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
    2538            expression.pop_comments()
    2539
    2540        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2541
    2542        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2543            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2544                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2545            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2546                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2547            else:
    2548                table_kind = ""
    2549            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2550
    2551        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2553    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2555        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2556        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2558    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2559        if expression.expressions:
    2560            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2561        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str: View Source

    2563    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2564        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2565        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2566        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2567        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2568        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2569        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2570        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str: View Source

    2572    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2574        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str: View Source

    2576    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2578        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2579        if kind:
    2580            kind = f"{kind}."
    2581        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str: View Source

    2583    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2584        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2586    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2587        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2588        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2589        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2590        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2591            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2592
    2593            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2594            expression.set("sample", None)
    2595
    2596        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2597        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2598        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str: View Source

    2600    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2601        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2602        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2604    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2605        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2606
    2607        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2608        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2609
    2610        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2611            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2612                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2613
    2614        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2615            columns = alias.columns
    2616            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2617        else:
    2618            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2619
    2620        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2621        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2622            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2623        else:
    2624            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2625                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2626            elif offset:
    2627                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2628            else:
    2629                suffix = alias
    2630
    2631        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str: View Source

    2633    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2634        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str: View Source

    2636    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2637        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2638        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str: View Source

    2640    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2642        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2643        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2644        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2645        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2646        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2647        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2648
    2649        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2650
    2651        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2652        if first is None:
    2653            first = ""
    2654        else:
    2655            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2656
    2657        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2658            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2659
    2660        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2661        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2663    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2664        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2665        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str: View Source

    2667    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2669        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2670        end = (
    2671            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2672            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2673        )
    2674        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str: View Source

    2676    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2678        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2679        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str: View Source

    2681    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2683        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2684        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2685        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2687    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2688        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2689    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2690        return apply_index_offset(
    2691            expression.this,
    2692            expression.expressions,
    2693            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2694        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str: View Source

    2696    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2697        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2698        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2699        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str: View Source

    2701    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2702        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str: View Source

    2704    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2706        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2707            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2708                this = self.wrap(this)
    2709            return f"ANY{this}"
    2710        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str: View Source

    2712    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2713        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str: View Source

    2715    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2717        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2718
    2719        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2720            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2721            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2722
    2723        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2724
    2725        if default:
    2726            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2727
    2728        statements.append("END")
    2729
    2730        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2731            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2732
    2733        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str: View Source

    2735    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2738        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str: View Source

    2740    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2741        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2742        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2743        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str: View Source

    2745    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2747        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2748        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str: View Source

    2750    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2751        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2752
    2753        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2754            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2755        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2756            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2757        else:
    2758            func_name = "TRIM"
    2759
    2760        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2762    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2763        args = expression.expressions
    2764        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2765            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2766
    2767        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2768            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2769
    2770        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2771            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2772
    2773        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str: View Source

    2775    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2776        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2777
    2778        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2779        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2780            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2781
    2782        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str: View Source

    2784    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2785        return self.func(
    2786            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2787        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str: View Source

    2789    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2790        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2791        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2793    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2794        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2795        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2796        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2797        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2798        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2799        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2800        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2801        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2803    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2804        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2805        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2806        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2807        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str: View Source

    2809    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2810        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str: View Source

    2812    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2813        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2814        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2815        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str: View Source

    2817    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2818        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str: View Source

    2820    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2821        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2822
    2823        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2824            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2825
    2826        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2827            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2828
    2829        return path

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str: View Source

    2831    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2832        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2833            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2834            if not callable(transform):
    2835                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2836                return ""
    2837
    2838            return transform(self, expression)
    2839
    2840        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2841            return str(expression)
    2842
    2843        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2844            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2845            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2846        else:
    2847            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2848            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2849
    2850        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str: View Source

    2852    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2853        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2855    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2856        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2857        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2858
    2859        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2860        if unique_keys is not None:
    2861            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2862        else:
    2863            unique_keys = ""
    2864
    2865        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2866        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2867        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2868        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2869
    2870        return self.func(
    2871            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2872            *expression.expressions,
    2873            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2874        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2876    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2877        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str: View Source

    2879    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2880        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2881        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2882        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2883        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2884        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2885        return self.func(
    2886            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2887        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    2889    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2891        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2892        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2893        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2894        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2895        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2896        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2897        return self.func(
    2898            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2899            this,
    2900            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2901        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2903    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2904        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2905        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2906        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2907
    2908        if nested_schema:
    2909            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2910
    2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2912        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2913        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2914        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str: View Source

    2916    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2917        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str: View Source

    2919    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2921        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2922        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2923        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2924        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2925        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2926        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2927        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2928        return self.func(
    2929            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2930        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2932    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2934        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2935        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2936        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2937        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2938        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str: View Source

    2940    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2942        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2943        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2944        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2945        with_ = (
    2946            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2947            if expressions
    2948            else ""
    2949        )
    2950        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str: View Source

    2952    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2953        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2954        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2955        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2956        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2957
    2958        if query:
    2959            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2960        elif unnest:
    2961            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2962        elif field:
    2963            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2964        else:
    2965            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2966
    2967        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2969    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2970        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str: View Source

    2972    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2973        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2974        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2975            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2976        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2977
    2978        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2979            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2980            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2981
    2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2983        if this:
    2984            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2985            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2986
    2987        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str: View Source

    2989    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2990        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str: View Source

    2992    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2994        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2995        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2996        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2997        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2998        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str: View Source

    3000    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    3001        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    3002        parent = expression.parent
    3003        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    3004        return self.func(
    3005            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    3006        )

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str: View Source

    3008    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    3009        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    3010        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str: View Source

    3012    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    3013        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    3014        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3015        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    3016        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str: View Source

    3018    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3019        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str: View Source

    3021    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3022        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3023        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3024        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str: View Source

    3026    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3027        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3028
    3029        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3030        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3031
    3032        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3033            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3034        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3035            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3036
    3037        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str: View Source

    3039    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3040        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3042    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3044        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3045        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3047    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3049        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3050        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3052    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3054        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3055        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str: View Source

    3057    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3058        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3060    def and_sql(
    3061        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3062    ) -> str:
    3063        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3065    def or_sql(
    3066        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3067    ) -> str:
    3068        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3070    def xor_sql(
    3071        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3072    ) -> str:
    3073        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3075    def connector_sql(
    3076        self,
    3077        expression: exp.Connector,
    3078        op: str,
    3079        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3080    ) -> str:
    3081        if stack is not None:
    3082            if expression.expressions:
    3083                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3084            else:
    3085                stack.append(expression.right)
    3086                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3087                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3088                        if comment:
    3089                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3090                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3091            return op
    3092
    3093        stack = [expression]
    3094        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3095        ops = set()
    3096
    3097        while stack:
    3098            node = stack.pop()
    3099            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3100                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3101            else:
    3102                sql = self.sql(node)
    3103                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3104                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3105                else:
    3106                    sqls.append(sql)
    3107
    3108        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3109        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str: View Source

    3111    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3112        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str: View Source

    3114    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3115        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str: View Source

    3117    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3118        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str: View Source

    3120    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3121        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str: View Source

    3123    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3124        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str: View Source

    3126    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3127        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    3129    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3130        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3131        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3132        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3133        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3134        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3135        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3136        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str: View Source

    3138    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3139        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3140        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str: View Source

    3142    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3143        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3144            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3145        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str: View Source

    3147    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3148        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str: View Source

    3150    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3152        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3153        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3154        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3155        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3156        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str: View Source

    3158    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3160        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3161        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3162        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3163        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3164        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3165        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3166        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3167        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str: View Source

    3169    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3171        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3172        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3173        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3174
    3175        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3176            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3177
    3178        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str: View Source

    3180    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3181        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str: View Source

    3183    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3184        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3185        if chain is not None:
    3186            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3187
    3188        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str: View Source

    3190    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3191        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3192        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3193        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str: View Source

    3195    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3197
    3198        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3199        if dtype:
    3200            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3201            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3202            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3203            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3204            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3205
    3206        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3207        if default:
    3208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3209
    3210        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3211        if comment:
    3212            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3213
    3214        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3215        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3216
    3217        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3218            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3219
    3220        if allow_null is not None:
    3221            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3222            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3223
    3224        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str: View Source

    3226    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3228        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3229            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3230        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str: View Source

    3232    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3233        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3235        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3236        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3237        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename) -> str: View Source

    3239    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
    3240        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3241            # Remove db from tables
    3242            expression = expression.transform(
    3243                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3244            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
    3245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3246        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str: View Source

    3248    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3249        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3250        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3251        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3252        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str: View Source

    3254    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3255        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3256        return f"SET {exprs}"

def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str: View Source

    3258    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3259        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3260
    3261        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3262            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3263        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3264            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3265        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3267        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3268            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3269        else:
    3270            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3271
    3272        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3273        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3274        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3275        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3276        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3277        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3278        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3279        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3280
    3281        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str: View Source

    3283    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3284        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3285            return self.expressions(
    3286                expression,
    3287                key="actions",
    3288                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3289                skip_first=True,
    3290            )
    3291        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str: View Source

    3293    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3294        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3295        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3296        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3298    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3299        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str: View Source

    3301    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3302        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3303
    3304        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3305            case = exp.case()
    3306            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3307                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3308            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3309
    3310        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3311
    3312        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3313        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3314        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str: View Source

    3316    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3317        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str: View Source

    3319    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3320        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str: View Source

    3322    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3323        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3324        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3325        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3326        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str: View Source

    3328    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3329        return self.sql(
    3330            exp.Cast(
    3331                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3332                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3333            )
    3334        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str: View Source

    3336    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3337        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3338            return self.func(
    3339                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3340            )
    3341        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str: View Source

    3343    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3344        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3345
    3346        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3347            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3348
    3349        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3350            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3351                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3352
    3353        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3354            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3355                return self.sql(
    3356                    exp.cast(
    3357                        l / r,
    3358                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3359                    )
    3360                )
    3361
    3362        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str: View Source

    3364    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3365        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str: View Source

    3367    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3368        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str: View Source

    3370    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3371        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str: View Source

    3373    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3374        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str: View Source

    3376    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3377        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str: View Source

    3379    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3380        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str: View Source

    3382    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3383        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str: View Source

    3385    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3386        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str: View Source

    3388    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3389        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str: View Source

    3391    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3392        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3394    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3395        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str: View Source

    3397    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3398        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3399            return self.sql(
    3400                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3401            )
    3402        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str: View Source

    3404    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3405        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3407    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3408        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str: View Source

    3410    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3411        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str: View Source

    3413    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3414        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str: View Source

    3416    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3417        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str: View Source

    3419    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3420        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str: View Source

    3422    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3423        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str: View Source

    3425    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3426        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str: View Source

    3428    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3429        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str: View Source

    3431    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3432        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str: View Source

    3434    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3435        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str: View Source

    3437    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3438        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str: View Source

    3440    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3441        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str: View Source

    3443    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3444        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3445            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3446            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3447
    3448        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str: View Source

    3450    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3451        this = expression.this
    3452        expr = expression.expression
    3453
    3454        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3455            this, expr = expr, this
    3456        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3457            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3458                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3459
    3460            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3461
    3462        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str: View Source

    3464    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3465        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3466        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3468        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3469        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3471    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3472        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3473        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3474        binary_type = type(expression)
    3475
    3476        while stack:
    3477            node = stack.pop()
    3478
    3479            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3480                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3481                if op_func:
    3482                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3483
    3484                stack.append(node.right)
    3485                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3486                stack.append(node.left)
    3487            else:
    3488                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3489
    3490        return "".join(sqls)

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str: View Source

    3492    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3493        args = []
    3494
    3495        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3496            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3497
    3498            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3499                for value in arg_value:
    3500                    args.append(value)
    3501            elif arg_value is not None:
    3502                args.append(arg_value)
    3503
    3504        if self.normalize_functions:
    3505            name = expression.sql_name()
    3506        else:
    3507            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3508
    3509        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    3511    def func(
    3512        self,
    3513        name: str,
    3514        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3515        prefix: str = "(",
    3516        suffix: str = ")",
    3517        normalize: bool = True,
    3518    ) -> str:
    3519        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3520        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str: View Source

    3522    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
    3523        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3524            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3525        )
    3526        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3527            return self.indent(
    3528                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
    3529            )
    3530        return sep.join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3532    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3533        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3535    def format_time(
    3536        self,
    3537        expression: exp.Expression,
    3538        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3539        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3540    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3541        return format_time(
    3542            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3543            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3544            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3545        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3547    def expressions(
    3548        self,
    3549        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3550        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3551        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3552        flat: bool = False,
    3553        indent: bool = True,
    3554        skip_first: bool = False,
    3555        skip_last: bool = False,
    3556        sep: str = ", ",
    3557        prefix: str = "",
    3558        dynamic: bool = False,
    3559        new_line: bool = False,
    3560    ) -> str:
    3561        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3562
    3563        if not expressions:
    3564            return ""
    3565
    3566        if flat:
    3567            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3568
    3569        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3570        result_sqls = []
    3571
    3572        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3573            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3574            if not sql:
    3575                continue
    3576
    3577            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3578
    3579            if self.pretty:
    3580                if self.leading_comma:
    3581                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3582                else:
    3583                    result_sqls.append(
    3584                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3585                    )
    3586            else:
    3587                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3588
    3589        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3590            if new_line:
    3591                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3592                result_sqls.append("")
    3593            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3594        else:
    3595            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3596
    3597        return (
    3598            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3599            if indent
    3600            else result_sql
    3601        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3603    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3604        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3605        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3606        if flat:
    3607            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3608        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    3610    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3611        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3612        if not property_name:
    3613            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3614        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str: View Source

    3616    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3617        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str: View Source

    3619    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3620        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str: View Source

    3622    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3624        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3625        expressions = (
    3626            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3627        )
    3628        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str: View Source

    3630    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3631        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3633        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str: View Source

    3635    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3636        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str: View Source

    3638    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3639        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3640        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3641        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3642        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3643
    3644        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3645        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3646            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3647            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3648            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3649            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3650        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3651            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3652                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3653            else:
    3654                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3655        else:
    3656            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3657        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str: View Source

    3659    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3660        table = expression.this
    3661        table_alias = ""
    3662
    3663        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3664        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3665            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3666            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3667
    3668        this = self.sql(table)
    3669        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3670        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3671        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3672        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3673        if returning:
    3674            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3675
    3676        sep = self.sep()
    3677
    3678        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3679            expression,
    3680            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3681        )

@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str: View Source

    3683    @unsupported_args("format")
    3684    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3685        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str: View Source

    3687    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3688        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3689            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3690            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3691
    3692        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3693        if not fmt:
    3694            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3695            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3696
    3697        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str: View Source

    3699    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3702        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3703        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3704        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str: View Source

    3706    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3708        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3709        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3710        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str: View Source

    3712    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3713        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str: View Source

    3715    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3716        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3719    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3720        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3721        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3722        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3723        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3724        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3725        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3726        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str: View Source

    3728    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3729        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3731    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3732        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3733        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3734        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3735        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3736        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str: View Source

    3738    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3740        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3741
    3742        if having:
    3743            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3744
    3745        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str: View Source

    3747    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3748        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3749        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3750        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3751        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3752        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3753        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3754        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3755        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3756        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3757        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3758        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3759        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3760        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str: View Source

    3762    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3763        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3764        if key_block_size:
    3765            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3766
    3767        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3768        if using:
    3769            return f"USING {using}"
    3770
    3771        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3772        if parser:
    3773            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3774
    3775        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3776        if comment:
    3777            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3778
    3779        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3780        if visible is not None:
    3781            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3782
    3783        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3784        if engine_attr:
    3785            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3786
    3787        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3788        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3789            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3790
    3791        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3792        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3794    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3795        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3796        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3798    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3799        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3800        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3802        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3803        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3804        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3805        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3806        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3807        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3808        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3809        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str: View Source

    3811    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3812        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3813            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3814
    3815        case = exp.Case().when(
    3816            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3817            expression.args["true"],
    3818            copy=False,
    3819        )
    3820        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3821        if else_cond:
    3822            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3823
    3824        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str: View Source

    3826    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3828        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3829        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3830        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3831        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3832        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str: View Source

    3834    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str: View Source

    3837    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3838        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str: View Source

    3840    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3841        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3842        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3843        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3844        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3845        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3846        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str: View Source

    3848    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3850        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3851        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str: View Source

    3853    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3855        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3856        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str: View Source

    3858    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3859        arg = expression.this
    3860        if not arg.type:
    3861            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3862
    3863            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3864
    3865        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3866            return self.sql(arg)
    3867
    3868        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3869        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str: View Source

    3871    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3872        this = expression.this
    3873        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3874            return self.sql(this)
    3875
    3876        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    3878    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3879        this = expression.this
    3880        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3881            return self.sql(this)
    3882
    3883        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str: View Source

    3885    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3886        this = expression.this
    3887        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3888
    3889        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3890            return self.sql(
    3891                exp.cast(
    3892                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3893                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3894                )
    3895            )
    3896
    3897        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3898            return self.sql(this)
    3899
    3900        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str: View Source

    3902    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3903        return self.sql(
    3904            exp.func(
    3905                "DATEDIFF",
    3906                expression.this,
    3907                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3908                "day",
    3909            )
    3910        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str: View Source

    3912    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3913        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3914            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3915
    3916        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3917        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3918            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3919
    3920        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str: View Source

    3922    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3923        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3924
    3925        return self.func(
    3926            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3927        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str: View Source

    3929    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3930        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3931            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3932            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3933            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3934            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3935
    3936        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3937
    3938        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3939        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3940            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3941
    3942        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str: View Source

    3944    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3945        expression.set(
    3946            "expressions",
    3947            [
    3948                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3949                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3950                else e
    3951                for e in expression.expressions
    3952            ],
    3953        )
    3954
    3955        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str: View Source

    3957    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3958        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3959        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3960
    3961        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str: View Source

    3963    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3964        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3965        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3966
    3967        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3968
    3969        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3970        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3971
    3972        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3973        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3974
    3975        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3976        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3977
    3978        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3979        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3980
    3981        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str: View Source

    3985    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3986        to = expression.this
    3987        value = expression.expression
    3988        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3989        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3990        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3991
    3992        if not to or not value:
    3993            return ""
    3994
    3995        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3996        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3997            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3998
    3999        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    4000        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    4001
    4002        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    4003        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    4004            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    4005
    4006            style_value = style.name
    4007            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    4008            if not converted_style:
    4009                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    4010
    4011            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    4012
    4013            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    4014                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    4015            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    4016                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    4017            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    4018                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    4019            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    4020                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4021
    4022        if not transformed:
    4023            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4024
    4025        return self.sql(transformed)

def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str: View Source

    4081    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4082        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4083
    4084        if expression.expressions:
    4085            upper = option.upper()
    4086
    4087            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4088            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4089
    4090            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4091            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4092            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4093            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4094
    4095        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4096
    4097        if not value:
    4098            return option
    4099
    4100        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4101
    4102        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str: View Source

    4104    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4105        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4106        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4107            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4108            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4109            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4110        else:
    4111            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4112            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4113            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4114
    4115        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4116        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4117
    4118        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4119        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4120
    4121        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4122        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4123
    4124        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4125        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4126
    4127        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str: View Source

    4129    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4131        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4132
    4133        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4134        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4135        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4136        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4137
    4138        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4139        params = self.expressions(
    4140            expression,
    4141            key="params",
    4142            sep=sep,
    4143            new_line=True,
    4144            skip_last=True,
    4145            skip_first=True,
    4146            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4147        )
    4148
    4149        if params:
    4150            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4151                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4152            elif not self.pretty:
    4153                params = f" {params}"
    4154
    4155        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str: View Source

    4157    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4158        return ""

def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str: View Source

    4160    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4161        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4162        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4163        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4164        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4165        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4166
    4167        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4168            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4169
    4170        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"

def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    4172    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4173        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4174    ) -> str:
    4175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4176        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4177        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4178        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"

def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str: View Source

    4180    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4182        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4183        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str: View Source

    4185    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4186        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)

def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str: View Source

    4188    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4190        expr = expression.expression
    4191
    4192        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4193            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4194            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4195        else:
    4196            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4197
    4198        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str: View Source

    4200    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4201        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4202            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4203
    4204        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str: View Source

    4206    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4207        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4208        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4209
    4210        if lower and upper:
    4211            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4212        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)

def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str: View Source

    4214    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4215        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4216        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4217        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4218        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4219        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4220        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4221
    4222        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"

def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str: View Source

    4224    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4225        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4226
    4227        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4228        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4229            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4230
    4231        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)

def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str: View Source

    4233    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4234        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4235        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"

def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str: View Source

    4237    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4238        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4239
    4240        parent = expression.parent
    4241        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4242            parent = parent.parent
    4243
    4244        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4245            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4246
    4247        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4248            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4249
    4250        return self.sql(generate_series)

def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str: View Source

    4252    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4253        exprs = expression.expressions
    4254        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4255            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4256        else:
    4257            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4258
    4259        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)

def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str: View Source

    4261    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4262        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4263            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4264
    4265        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4266        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4267        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4268
    4269        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4270            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4271                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4272            )
    4273
    4274        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4275
    4276        return self.sql(expr)

def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str: View Source

    4278    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4280        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4281
    4282        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4283
    4284        if _with is None:
    4285            with_sql = ""
    4286        elif not _with:
    4287            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4288        else:
    4289            with_sql = " WITH"
    4290
    4291        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4292
    4293        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"

def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str: View Source

    4295    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4296        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4297            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4298
    4299        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4300        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4301        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4302
    4303        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4304        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4305
    4306        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")

def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str: View Source

    4308    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4309        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4310        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4311        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4312        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4313        return f"{condition}{insert}"

def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str: View Source

    4315    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4316        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4317        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4318        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4319        return res

def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str: View Source

    4321    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4322        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4323        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4324        empty = (
    4325            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4326            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4327            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4328        )
    4329
    4330        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4331        error = (
    4332            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4333            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4334            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4335        )
    4336
    4337        if error and empty:
    4338            error = (
    4339                f"{empty} {error}"
    4340                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4341                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4342            )
    4343            empty = ""
    4344
    4345        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4346
    4347        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"

def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str: View Source

    4349    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4350        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4351        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4352
    4353        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4354        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4355
    4356        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4357        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4358
    4359        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4360
    4361        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)

def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    4363    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4364        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4365
    4366        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4367            parent = expression.parent
    4368            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4369                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4370                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4371            else:
    4372                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4373                this = expression.this
    4374                this_sql = (
    4375                    self.expressions(this)
    4376                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4377                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4378                )
    4379                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4380
    4381        return array_agg

def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str: View Source

    4383    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4385        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4386
    4387        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"

def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str: View Source

    4389    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4390        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4391
    4392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4393        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4394
    4395        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4396        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4397
    4398        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4399
    4400        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4401
    4402        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"

def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege): View Source

    4404    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4406        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4407        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4408
    4409        return f"{this}{columns}"

def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal): View Source

    4411    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4413
    4414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4415        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4416
    4417        return f"{kind}{this}"

def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns): View Source

    4419    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4420        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4421        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4422            func = f"*{func}"
    4423
    4424        return func

def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay): View Source

    4426    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4427        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4428        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4429        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4430        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4431        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4432
    4433        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble) -> str: View Source

    4435    @unsupported_args("format")
    4436    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
    4437        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String) -> str: View Source

    4439    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
    4440        this = expression.this
    4441        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
    4442
    4443        if zone:
    4444            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
    4445            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
    4446            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
    4447            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
    4448                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
    4449            )
    4450
    4451        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))