sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce, wraps
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
      21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
      22
      23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      24
      25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
      27
      28
      29def unsupported_args(
      30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
      31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
      32    """
      33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
      34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
      35    """
      36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
      37    for arg in args:
      38        if isinstance(arg, str):
      39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
      40        else:
      41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
      42
      43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
      44        @wraps(func)
      45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
      46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
      47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
      48
      49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
      50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
      51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
      52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
      53                    )
      54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
      55
      56            return func(generator, expression)
      57
      58        return _func
      59
      60    return decorator
      61
      62
      63class _Generator(type):
      64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      66
      67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      70
      71        return klass
      72
      73
      74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      75    """
      76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      77
      78    Args:
      79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      80            Default: False.
      81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      83            True or 'always': Always quote.
      84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      86            Default: False.
      87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      89            Default: 2.
      90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      92            Default: 2.
      93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      96            False: Disables function name normalization.
      97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     101            Default: 3
     102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     104            Default: False
     105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     107            line length.
     108            Default: 80
     109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     110            Default: True
     111    """
     112
     113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     151        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     152        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     153        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     154        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     155        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     156        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     157        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     158        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     159        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     160        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     161        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     162        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     163        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     164        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     165        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     166        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     168        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     169        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     170        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     171        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     172            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     173        ),
     174        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     175        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     176        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     177        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     178        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     179        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     180        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     181        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     182        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     183        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     184        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     185        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     186        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     187        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     188        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     189        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     190        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     191        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     192        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     193        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     194        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     195        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     196        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     205    }
     206
     207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     209    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     210    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     211
     212    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     213    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     214    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     215
     216    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     217    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     218
     219    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     220    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     221
     222    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     223    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     224
     225    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     226    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     227
     228    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     229    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     230
     231    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     232    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     233
     234    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     235    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     236
     237    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     238    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     239
     240    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     241    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     242
     243    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     244    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     245
     246    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     247    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     248
     249    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     250    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     251
     252    # Whether join hints should be generated
     253    JOIN_HINTS = True
     254
     255    # Whether table hints should be generated
     256    TABLE_HINTS = True
     257
     258    # Whether query hints should be generated
     259    QUERY_HINTS = True
     260
     261    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     262    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     263
     264    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     265    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     266
     267    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     268    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     269
     270    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     271    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     272
     273    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     274    RETURNING_END = True
     275
     276    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     277    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     278
     279    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     280    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     281
     282    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     283    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     284
     285    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     286    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     287
     288    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     289    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     290    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     291    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     292
     293    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     294    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     295
     296    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     297    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     298
     299    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     300    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     301
     302    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     303    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     304
     305    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     306    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     307
     308    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     309    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     310
     311    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     312    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     313
     314    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     315    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     316
     317    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     318    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     319
     320    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     321    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     322
     323    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     324    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     325
     326    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     327    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     328
     329    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     330    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     331
     332    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     333    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     334
     335    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     336    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     337
     338    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     339    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     340
     341    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     342    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     343
     344    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     345    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     346
     347    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     348    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     349
     350    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     351    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     352
     353    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     354    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     355
     356    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     357    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     358
     359    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     360    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     361
     362    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     363    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     364
     365    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     366    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     367
     368    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     369    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     370    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     371
     372    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     373    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     374
     375    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     376    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     377
     378    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     379    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     380
     381    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     382    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     383
     384    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     385    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     386
     387    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     388    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     389
     390    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     391    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     392    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     393    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     394
     395    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     396    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     397
     398    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     399    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     400
     401    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     402    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     403
     404    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     405    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     406
     407    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     408    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     409
     410    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     411    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     412
     413    # The HEX function name
     414    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     415
     416    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     417    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     418
     419    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     420    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     421
     422    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     423    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     424
     425    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     426    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     427
     428    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     429    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     430
     431    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     432    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     433
     434    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     435    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     436
     437    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     438        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     439        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     440        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     441        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     442        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     443        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     444        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     445        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     446        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     447        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     448    }
     449
     450    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     451        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     452        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     453        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     454        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     455        "DAYS": "DAY",
     456        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     457        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     458        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     459        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     460    }
     461
     462    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     463        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     464        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     465        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     466        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     467            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     468            if e.args.get("windows")
     469            else ""
     470        ),
     471        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     472    }
     473
     474    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     475
     476    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     477
     478    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     479    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     480
     481    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     482        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     483        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     484        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     485        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     486        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     487        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     488        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     489        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     490        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     491        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     492        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     493        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     494        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     495        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     496        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     497        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     498        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     499        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     500        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     501        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     502        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     503        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     504        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     505        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     508        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     509        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     510        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     511        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     512        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     513        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     514        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     515        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     516        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     517        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     518        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     519        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     520        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     521        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     522        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     523        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     524        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     525        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     526        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     527        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     528        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     529        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     530        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     531        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     532        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     533        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     534        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     535        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     536        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     537        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     540        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     543        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     544        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     546        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     547        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     548        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     549        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     550        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     551        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     552        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     554        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     555        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     556        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     557        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     558        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     559        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     560        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     561        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     562        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     563        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     564        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     565        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     566        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     567        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     568        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     569    }
     570
     571    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     572    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     573
     574    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     575    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     576        exp.Command,
     577        exp.Create,
     578        exp.Delete,
     579        exp.Drop,
     580        exp.From,
     581        exp.Insert,
     582        exp.Join,
     583        exp.MultitableInserts,
     584        exp.Select,
     585        exp.SetOperation,
     586        exp.Update,
     587        exp.Where,
     588        exp.With,
     589    )
     590
     591    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     592    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     593        exp.Binary,
     594        exp.SetOperation,
     595    )
     596
     597    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     598    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     599        exp.Column,
     600        exp.Literal,
     601        exp.Neg,
     602        exp.Paren,
     603    )
     604
     605    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     606        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     607        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     608        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     609        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     610    }
     611
     612    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     613    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     614
     615    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     616
     617    __slots__ = (
     618        "pretty",
     619        "identify",
     620        "normalize",
     621        "pad",
     622        "_indent",
     623        "normalize_functions",
     624        "unsupported_level",
     625        "max_unsupported",
     626        "leading_comma",
     627        "max_text_width",
     628        "comments",
     629        "dialect",
     630        "unsupported_messages",
     631        "_escaped_quote_end",
     632        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     633        "_next_name",
     634        "_identifier_start",
     635        "_identifier_end",
     636    )
     637
     638    def __init__(
     639        self,
     640        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     641        identify: str | bool = False,
     642        normalize: bool = False,
     643        pad: int = 2,
     644        indent: int = 2,
     645        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     646        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     647        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     648        leading_comma: bool = False,
     649        max_text_width: int = 80,
     650        comments: bool = True,
     651        dialect: DialectType = None,
     652    ):
     653        import sqlglot
     654        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     655
     656        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     657        self.identify = identify
     658        self.normalize = normalize
     659        self.pad = pad
     660        self._indent = indent
     661        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     662        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     663        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     664        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     665        self.comments = comments
     666        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     667
     668        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     669        self.normalize_functions = (
     670            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     671        )
     672
     673        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     674        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     675            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     676        )
     677        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     678
     679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     680
     681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     683
     684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     685        """
     686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     687
     688        Args:
     689            expression: The syntax tree.
     690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     691                it is safer to copy.
     692
     693        Returns:
     694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     695        """
     696        if copy:
     697            expression = expression.copy()
     698
     699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     700
     701        self.unsupported_messages = []
     702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     703
     704        if self.pretty:
     705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     706
     707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     708            return sql
     709
     710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     712                logger.warning(msg)
     713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     715
     716        return sql
     717
     718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     720        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     721
     722        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     723            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     724
     725            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     726
     727        return expression
     728
     729    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     730        if (
     731            not expression.parent
     732            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     733            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     734        ):
     735            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     736
     737            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     738        return expression
     739
     740    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     741        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     742            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     743        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     744
     745    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     746        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     747
     748    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     749        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     750
     751    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     752        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     753        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     754        return comment
     755
     756    def maybe_comment(
     757        self,
     758        sql: str,
     759        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     760        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     761        separated: bool = False,
     762    ) -> str:
     763        comments = (
     764            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     765            if self.comments
     766            else None
     767        )
     768
     769        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     770            return sql
     771
     772        comments_sql = " ".join(
     773            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     774        )
     775
     776        if not comments_sql:
     777            return sql
     778
     779        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     780
     781        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     782            return (
     783                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     784                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     785                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     786            )
     787
     788        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     789
     790    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     791        this_sql = (
     792            self.sql(expression)
     793            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     794            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     795        )
     796        if not this_sql:
     797            return "()"
     798
     799        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     800        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     801
     802    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     803        original = self.identify
     804        self.identify = False
     805        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     806        self.identify = original
     807        return result
     808
     809    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     810        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     811            return name.upper()
     812        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     813            return name.lower()
     814        return name
     815
     816    def indent(
     817        self,
     818        sql: str,
     819        level: int = 0,
     820        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     821        skip_first: bool = False,
     822        skip_last: bool = False,
     823    ) -> str:
     824        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     825            return sql
     826
     827        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     828        lines = sql.split("\n")
     829
     830        return "\n".join(
     831            (
     832                line
     833                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     834                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     835            )
     836            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     837        )
     838
     839    def sql(
     840        self,
     841        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     842        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     843        comment: bool = True,
     844    ) -> str:
     845        if not expression:
     846            return ""
     847
     848        if isinstance(expression, str):
     849            return expression
     850
     851        if key:
     852            value = expression.args.get(key)
     853            if value:
     854                return self.sql(value)
     855            return ""
     856
     857        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     858
     859        if callable(transform):
     860            sql = transform(self, expression)
     861        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     862            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     863
     864            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     865                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     866            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     867                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     868            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     869                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     870            else:
     871                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     872        else:
     873            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     874
     875        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     876
     877    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     878        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     879        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     880        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     881
     882    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     883        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     884        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     885        options = expression.args.get("options")
     886        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     887        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     888        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     889        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     891
     892    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     893        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     894            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     895        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     896        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     897
     898    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     899        return ".".join(
     900            self.sql(part)
     901            for part in (
     902                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     903                expression.args.get("db"),
     904                expression.args.get("table"),
     905                expression.args.get("this"),
     906            )
     907            if part
     908        )
     909
     910    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     911        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     912
     913        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     914            join_mark = ""
     915            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     916
     917        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     918
     919    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     921        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     922        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     923        return f"{position}{this}"
     924
     925    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     926        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     927        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     928        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     929        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     930        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     931        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     932        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     933        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     934
     935        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     936            kind = ""
     937
     938        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     939
     940    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     942        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     943        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     944
     945    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     947        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     948            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     949        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     950            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     951        else:
     952            persisted = ""
     953        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     954
     955    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     956        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     957
     958    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     959        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     960            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     961        else:
     962            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     963
     964        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     965
     966    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     967        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     968    ) -> str:
     969        this = ""
     970        if expression.this is not None:
     971            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     972            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     973
     974        start = expression.args.get("start")
     975        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     976        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     977        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     978        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     979        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     980        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     981        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     982        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     983        cycle_sql = ""
     984
     985        if cycle is not None:
     986            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     987            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     988
     989        sequence_opts = ""
     990        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     991            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     992            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     993
     994        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     995        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     996
     997        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     998
     999    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1000        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1001    ) -> str:
    1002        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1003        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1004        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1005
    1006    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1007        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1008    ) -> str:
    1009        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1010
    1011    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1012        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1013
    1014    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1015        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1016
    1017    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1018        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1019        if desc is not None:
    1020            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1021        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1022
    1023    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1025        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1026        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1027        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1028        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1029        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1030        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1031        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1032
    1033    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1034        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1035
    1036    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1037        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1038        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1039        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1040        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1041
    1042        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1043
    1044        properties_sql = ""
    1045        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1046            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1047        ):
    1048            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1049                exp.Properties(
    1050                    expressions=[
    1051                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1053                    ]
    1054                )
    1055            )
    1056
    1057            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1058                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1059            elif not self.pretty:
    1060                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1061                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1062
    1063        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1064        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1065
    1066        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1067        if expression_sql:
    1068            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1069
    1070            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1071                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1072                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1073                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1074                        exp.Properties(
    1075                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1076                        ),
    1077                        wrapped=False,
    1078                    )
    1079                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1080                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1081
    1082        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1083        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1084            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1085                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1086                wrapped=False,
    1087                prefix=" ",
    1088            )
    1089
    1090        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1091        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1092        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1093
    1094        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1095        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1096        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1097
    1098        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1099        if clustered is None:
    1100            clustered_sql = ""
    1101        elif clustered:
    1102            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1103        else:
    1104            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1105
    1106        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1107        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1108            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1109                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1110                sep=" ",
    1111                prefix=" ",
    1112                wrapped=False,
    1113            )
    1114
    1115        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1116
    1117        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1118        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1119            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1120                exp.Properties(
    1121                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1122                ),
    1123                sep=" ",
    1124                prefix=" ",
    1125                wrapped=False,
    1126            )
    1127
    1128        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1129        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1130        no_schema_binding = (
    1131            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1132        )
    1133
    1134        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1135        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1136
    1137        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1138        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1139
    1140    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1141        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1142        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1143        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1144        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1145        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1146        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1147        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1148        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1149        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1150        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1151
    1152        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1153        if cache is None:
    1154            cache_str = ""
    1155        elif cache is True:
    1156            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1157        else:
    1158            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1159
    1160        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1161        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1162
    1163        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1164
    1165    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1167        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1168        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1169        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1170
    1171    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1172        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1173        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1174        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1175        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1176        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1177
    1178    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1179        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1180        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1181
    1182    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1183        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1184        if with_:
    1185            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1186        return sql
    1187
    1188    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1189        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1190        recursive = (
    1191            "RECURSIVE "
    1192            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1193            else ""
    1194        )
    1195
    1196        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1197
    1198    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1199        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1200
    1201        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1202        if materialized is False:
    1203            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1204        elif materialized:
    1205            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1206
    1207        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1208
    1209    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1210        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1211        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1212        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1213
    1214        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1215            columns = ""
    1216            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1217
    1218        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1219            alias = self._next_name()
    1220
    1221        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1222
    1223    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1225        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1226            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1227        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1228
    1229    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1231        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1232            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1233        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1234
    1235    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1237        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1238            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1239        return this
    1240
    1241    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1243        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1244
    1245        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1246            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1248        else:
    1249            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1250            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1251
    1252        if escape:
    1253            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1254            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1255        else:
    1256            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1257            escape_sql = ""
    1258
    1259        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1260            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1261
    1262        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1263
    1264    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1265        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1266        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1267
    1268    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1270        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1271        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1272        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1273
    1274    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1275        nested = ""
    1276        values = ""
    1277        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1278
    1279        type_value = expression.this
    1280        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1281            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1282        else:
    1283            type_sql = (
    1284                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1285                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1286                else type_value
    1287            )
    1288
    1289        if interior:
    1290            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1291                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1292                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1293                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1294                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1295                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1296            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1297                nested = f" {interior}"
    1298            else:
    1299                nested = f"({interior})"
    1300
    1301        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1302        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1303            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1305        ):
    1306            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1307
    1308        return type_sql
    1309
    1310    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1311        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1312        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1313        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1314        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1315
    1316    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1318        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1319        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1320        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1321        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1322        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1323        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1324        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1325        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1326        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1327        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1328        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1329            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1330        else:
    1331            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1332        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1333
    1334    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1336        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1337        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1338        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1339        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1340        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1341        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1342        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1343        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1344        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1345        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1346        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1347        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1348        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1349        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1350
    1351    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1352        op_type = type(expression)
    1353        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1354
    1355        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1356        if (
    1357            distinct is False
    1358            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1359            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1360        ):
    1361            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1362
    1363        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1364
    1365        if distinct is None:
    1366            distinct = default_distinct
    1367            if distinct is None:
    1368                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1369
    1370        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1371            kind = ""
    1372        else:
    1373            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1374
    1375        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1376        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1377
    1378    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1379        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1380            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1381            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1382
    1383            if limit or order:
    1384                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1385                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1386                )
    1387
    1388                if limit:
    1389                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1390                if order:
    1391                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1392                return self.sql(select)
    1393
    1394        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1395        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1396
    1397        while stack:
    1398            node = stack.pop()
    1399
    1400            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1401                stack.append(node.expression)
    1402                stack.append(
    1403                    self.maybe_comment(
    1404                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1405                    )
    1406                )
    1407                stack.append(node.this)
    1408            else:
    1409                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1410
    1411        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1412        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1413        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1414
    1415    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1416        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1417        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1418        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1419        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1420        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1421            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1422        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1423        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1424
    1425    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1426        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1427            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1428            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1429            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1430
    1431        agg = expression.this
    1432        agg_arg = agg.this
    1433        cond = expression.expression.this
    1434        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1435        return self.sql(agg)
    1436
    1437    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1438        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1439            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1440            return ""
    1441
    1442        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1443
    1444    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1445        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1446        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1447        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1448        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1449        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1450        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1451        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1452        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1453        if include:
    1454            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1455        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1456        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1457        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1458        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1459        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1460        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1461
    1462        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1463
    1464    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1465        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1466        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1467        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1468        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1469        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1470        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1471        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1472
    1473        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1474
    1475        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1476        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1477
    1478    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1479        text = expression.name
    1480        lower = text.lower()
    1481        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1482        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1483        if (
    1484            expression.quoted
    1485            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1486            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1487            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1488        ):
    1489            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1490        return text
    1491
    1492    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1494        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1496
    1497        return text
    1498
    1499    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1500        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1501        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1502            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1503        return text
    1504
    1505    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1506        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1507        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1508        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1509        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1510        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1511
    1512    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1513        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1514        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1515
    1516    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1517        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1518
    1519    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1520        root_properties = []
    1521        with_properties = []
    1522
    1523        for p in expression.expressions:
    1524            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1525            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1526                with_properties.append(p)
    1527            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1528                root_properties.append(p)
    1529
    1530        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1531        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1532
    1533        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1534            with_props = " " + with_props
    1535
    1536        return root_props + with_props
    1537
    1538    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1539        if properties.expressions:
    1540            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1541        return ""
    1542
    1543    def properties(
    1544        self,
    1545        properties: exp.Properties,
    1546        prefix: str = "",
    1547        sep: str = ", ",
    1548        suffix: str = "",
    1549        wrapped: bool = True,
    1550    ) -> str:
    1551        if properties.expressions:
    1552            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1553            if expressions:
    1554                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1555                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1556        return ""
    1557
    1558    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1559        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1560
    1561    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1562        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1563        for p in properties.expressions:
    1564            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1565            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1566                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1567            else:
    1568                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1569
    1570        return properties_locs
    1571
    1572    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1573        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1574            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1575        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1576
    1577    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1578        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1579        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1580            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1581
    1582        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1583        if not property_name:
    1584            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1585
    1586        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1587
    1588    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1589        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1590            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1591            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1592
    1593            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1594            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1595                like = f"({like})"
    1596
    1597            return like
    1598
    1599        if expression.expressions:
    1600            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1601
    1602        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1603        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1604
    1605    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1607        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1608        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1609
    1610    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1611        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1612        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1613        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1614        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1615        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1616        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1617        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1618
    1619    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1620        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1621        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1622        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1623
    1624    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1625        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1626            property = "DEFAULT"
    1627        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1628            property = "ON"
    1629        else:
    1630            property = "OFF"
    1631        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1632
    1633    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1634        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1635            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1636        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1637            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1638
    1639        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1640        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1641
    1642    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1643        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1644        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1645        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1646        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1647            if default:
    1648                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1649            elif minimum:
    1650                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1651            else:
    1652                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1653            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1654        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1655        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1656        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1657
    1658    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1659        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1660        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1661        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1662        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1663        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1664
    1665        if autotemp is not None:
    1666            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1667        elif always:
    1668            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1669        elif default:
    1670            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1671        elif manual:
    1672            prop = "MANUAL"
    1673        elif never:
    1674            prop = "NEVER"
    1675        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1676
    1677    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1678        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1679        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1680        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1681        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1682        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1683        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1684        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1685
    1686    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1687        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1688            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1689        if expression.this:
    1690            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1691            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1692            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1693
    1694        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1695        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1696        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1697
    1698    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1700
    1701        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1702        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1703            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1704        else:
    1705            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1706
    1707        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1708
    1709    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1710        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1711        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1712        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1713        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1714        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1715        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1716        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1717
    1718    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1719        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1720        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1721        statistics_sql = ""
    1722        if statistics is not None:
    1723            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1724        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1725
    1726    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1728        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1729        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1730        data_consistency = (
    1731            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1732        )
    1733        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1734        retention_period = (
    1735            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1736        )
    1737
    1738        if this:
    1739            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1740        else:
    1741            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1742
    1743        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1744
    1745        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1746
    1747    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1748        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1749        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1750
    1751        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1752            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1753        else:
    1754            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1755
    1756        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1757        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1758        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1759        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1760        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1761        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1762        if is_function:
    1763            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1764        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1765
    1766        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1767        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1768        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1769        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1770        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1771        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1772        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1773        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1774
    1775        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1776            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1777        else:
    1778            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1779
    1780        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1781        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1782        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1783        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1784
    1785        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1786        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1787
    1788        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1789        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1790
    1791    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1793
    1794    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1795        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1796        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1799        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1800
    1801    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1802        return expression.name
    1803
    1804    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1805        return expression.name
    1806
    1807    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1808        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1809
    1810        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1811        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1812
    1813        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1814        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1815        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1816
    1817        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1818        if expressions:
    1819            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1820            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1821
    1822        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1823
    1824    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1825        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1826
    1827    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1828        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1829        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1830        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1831        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1832        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1833        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1834        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1835        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1836        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1837        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1838        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1839        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1840        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1841
    1842    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1843        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1844
    1845    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1846        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1847        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1848        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1849        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1850
    1851    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1854        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1855        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1856
    1857    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1858        return ".".join(
    1859            self.sql(part)
    1860            for part in (
    1861                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1862                expression.args.get("db"),
    1863                expression.args.get("this"),
    1864            )
    1865            if part is not None
    1866        )
    1867
    1868    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1869        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1870        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1871        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1872        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1873        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1874        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1875        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1876        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1877
    1878        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1879        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1880            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1881            sample_post_alias = ""
    1882        else:
    1883            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1884            sample_post_alias = sample
    1885
    1886        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1887        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1888        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1889        joins = self.indent(
    1890            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1891        )
    1892        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1893
    1894        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1895        if file_format:
    1896            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1897            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1898            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1899
    1900        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1901        if ordinality:
    1902            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1903            alias = ""
    1904
    1905        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1906        if when:
    1907            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1908
    1909        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1910        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1911
    1912        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1913        if rows_from:
    1914            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1915
    1916        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1917
    1918    def tablesample_sql(
    1919        self,
    1920        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1921        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1922    ) -> str:
    1923        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1924        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1925        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1926        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1927        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1928        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1929        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1930        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1931        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1932
    1933        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1934        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1935            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1936
    1937        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1938        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1939            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1940
    1941        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1942        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1943            expr = f"({expr})"
    1944
    1945        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1946
    1947    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1949
    1950        if expression.this:
    1951            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1952            if not expressions:
    1953                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1954
    1955            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1956            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1957            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1958            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1959            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1960
    1961        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1962        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1963        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1964
    1965        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1966
    1967        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1968        if include_nulls is not None:
    1969            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1970        else:
    1971            nulls = ""
    1972
    1973        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1974        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1975        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    1976
    1977    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1978        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1979        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1980        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1981        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1982
    1983    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1984        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    1985
    1986    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1988        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1989        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1990        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1991        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1992        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1993        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1994        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1995            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1996        else:
    1997            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1998        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2000
    2001    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2002        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2003
    2004        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2005        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2006            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2007            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2008            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2009            values = (
    2010                f"({values})"
    2011                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2012                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2013                else values
    2014            )
    2015            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2016
    2017        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2018        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2019        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2020
    2021        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2022
    2023        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2024            row = tup.expressions
    2025
    2026            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2027                row = [
    2028                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2029                ]
    2030
    2031            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2032
    2033        if self.pretty:
    2034            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2035            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2036            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2037            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2038            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2039
    2040        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2041        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2042        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2043
    2044    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2045        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2046
    2047    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2048    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2049        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2050        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2051        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2052
    2053    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2054        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2055
    2056    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2057        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2058        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2059
    2060    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2062        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2063
    2064    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2065        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2066        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2067
    2068    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2069        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2070        if group_by_all is True:
    2071            modifier = " ALL"
    2072        elif group_by_all is False:
    2073            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2074        else:
    2075            modifier = ""
    2076
    2077        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2078
    2079        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2080        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2081        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2082
    2083        groupings = csv(
    2084            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2085            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2086            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2087            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2088            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2089        )
    2090
    2091        if (
    2092            expression.expressions
    2093            and groupings
    2094            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2095        ):
    2096            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2097
    2098        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2099
    2100    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2101        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2102        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2103
    2104    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2105        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2106        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2107        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2108        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2109        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2110        return start + connect
    2111
    2112    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2113        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2114
    2115    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2116        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2117            side = None
    2118        else:
    2119            side = expression.side
    2120
    2121        op_sql = " ".join(
    2122            op
    2123            for op in (
    2124                expression.method,
    2125                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2126                side,
    2127                expression.kind,
    2128                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2129            )
    2130            if op
    2131        )
    2132        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2133        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2134        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2135        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2136
    2137        if not on_sql and using:
    2138            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2139
    2140        this = expression.this
    2141        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2142
    2143        if on_sql:
    2144            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2145            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2146            if using:
    2147                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2148            else:
    2149                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2150        elif not op_sql:
    2151            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2152                return f" {this_sql}"
    2153
    2154            return f", {this_sql}"
    2155
    2156        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2157            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2158
    2159        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2160
    2161    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2162        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2163        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2164        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2165
    2166    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2167        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2168
    2169        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2170        if cross_apply is True:
    2171            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2172        elif cross_apply is False:
    2173            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2174        else:
    2175            op = ""
    2176
    2177        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2178
    2179    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2181
    2182        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2183            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2184            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2185            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2186            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2187            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2188            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2189
    2190        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2191        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2192        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2193
    2194    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2196
    2197        args = [
    2198            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2199            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2200            if e
    2201        ]
    2202
    2203        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2204        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2206        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2207
    2208        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2209
    2210    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2212        value = expression.expression
    2213        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2215        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2216        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2217
    2218    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2219        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2220        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2222        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2223        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2224        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2225        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2226        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2227
    2228    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2229        expressions = (
    2230            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2231        )
    2232        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2233        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2234
    2235    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2236        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2237
    2238    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2239        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2240            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2241            return ""
    2242
    2243        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2244        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2245        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2246        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2247
    2248        if wait is not None:
    2249            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2250                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2251            else:
    2252                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2253
    2254        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2255
    2256    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2257        text = expression.this or ""
    2258        if expression.is_string:
    2259            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2260        return text
    2261
    2262    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2263        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2264            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2265            text = "".join(
    2266                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2267            )
    2268
    2269        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2270            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2271        )
    2272
    2273    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2274        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2275        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2276        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2277        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2278        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2279        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2280        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2281        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2282        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2283        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2284        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2285
    2286    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2287        return "NULL"
    2288
    2289    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2290        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2291
    2292    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2294        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2295        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2296        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2297
    2298    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2299        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2300        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2301        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2302        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2303        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2304        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2305        interpolated_values = [
    2306            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2307            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2308        ]
    2309        interpolate = (
    2310            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2311        )
    2312        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2313
    2314    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2315        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2316
    2317    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2318        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2319
    2320    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2321        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2322
    2323    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2324        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2325        asc = not desc
    2326
    2327        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2328        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2329        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2330        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2331        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2332
    2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2334
    2335        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2336        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2337        if nulls_first and (
    2338            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2339        ):
    2340            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2341        elif (
    2342            nulls_last
    2343            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2344            and not nulls_are_last
    2345        ):
    2346            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2347
    2348        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2349        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2350            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2351            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2352                self.unsupported(
    2353                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2354                )
    2355                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2356            elif (
    2357                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2358                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2359                and (
    2360                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2361                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2362                )
    2363            ):
    2364                self.unsupported(
    2365                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2366                )
    2367                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2368            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2369                if expression.this.is_int:
    2370                    self.unsupported(
    2371                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2372                    )
    2373                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2374                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2375                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2376                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2377
    2378        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2379        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2380
    2381        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2382
    2383    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2384        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2385        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2386
    2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2388
    2389        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2390
    2391    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2392        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2393        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2394        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2395        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2396        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2397        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2398        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2399        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2400        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2401        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2402        definition_sqls = [
    2403            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2404            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2405        ]
    2406        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2407        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2408        body = "".join(
    2409            (
    2410                partition,
    2411                order,
    2412                measures,
    2413                rows,
    2414                after,
    2415                pattern,
    2416                define,
    2417            )
    2418        )
    2419        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2420        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2421        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2422
    2423    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2424        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2425
    2426        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2427            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2428        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2429            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2430
    2431        return csv(
    2432            *sqls,
    2433            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2434            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2435            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2436            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2437            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2438            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2439            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2440            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2441            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2442            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2443            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2444            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2445            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2446            sep="",
    2447        )
    2448
    2449    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2450        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2451        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2452
    2453    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2454        return ""
    2455
    2456    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2457        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2458    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2459        return [
    2460            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2461            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2462        ]
    2463
    2464    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2465        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2466        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2467        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2468
    2469    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2470        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2471        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2472            into.pop()
    2473
    2474        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2475        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2476        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2477        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2478
    2479        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2480        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2481            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2482            limit.pop()
    2483        else:
    2484            top = ""
    2485
    2486        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2487
    2488        if kind:
    2489            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2490                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2491            else:
    2492                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2493                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2494                        sqls=[
    2495                            self.sql(
    2496                                exp.Struct(
    2497                                    expressions=[
    2498                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2499                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2500                                        else e
    2501                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2502                                    ]
    2503                                )
    2504                            )
    2505                        ]
    2506                    )
    2507                kind = ""
    2508
    2509        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2510        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2511        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2512        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2513        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2514            expression,
    2515            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2516            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2517            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2518        )
    2519
    2520        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2521
    2522        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2523            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2524                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2525            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2526                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2527            else:
    2528                table_kind = ""
    2529            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2530
    2531        return sql
    2532
    2533    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2535        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2536        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2537
    2538    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2539        if expression.expressions:
    2540            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2541        return ""
    2542
    2543    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2544        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2545        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2546        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2547        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2548        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2549        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2550        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2551
    2552    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2554        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2555
    2556    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2558        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2559        if kind:
    2560            kind = f"{kind}."
    2561        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2562
    2563    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2564        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2565
    2566    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2567        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2568        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2569        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2570        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2571            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2572
    2573            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2574            expression.set("sample", None)
    2575
    2576        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2577        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2578        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2579
    2580    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2581        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2582        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2583
    2584    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2585        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2586
    2587        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2588        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2589
    2590        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2591            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2592                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2593
    2594        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2595            columns = alias.columns
    2596            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2597        else:
    2598            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2599
    2600        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2601        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2602            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2603        else:
    2604            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2605                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2606            elif offset:
    2607                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2608            else:
    2609                suffix = alias
    2610
    2611        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2612
    2613    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2614        return ""
    2615
    2616    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2617        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2618        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2619
    2620    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2622        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2623        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2624        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2625        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2626        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2627        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2628
    2629        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2630
    2631        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2632        if first is None:
    2633            first = ""
    2634        else:
    2635            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2636
    2637        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2638            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2639
    2640        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2641        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2642
    2643    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2644        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2645        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2646
    2647    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2648        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2649        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2650        end = (
    2651            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2652            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2653        )
    2654        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2655
    2656    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2657        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2658        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2659        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2660
    2661    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2663        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2664        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2665        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2666
    2667    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2668        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2669    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2670        return apply_index_offset(
    2671            expression.this,
    2672            expression.expressions,
    2673            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2674        )
    2675
    2676    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2677        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2678        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2680
    2681    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2682        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2683
    2684    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2686        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2687            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2688                this = self.wrap(this)
    2689            return f"ANY{this}"
    2690        return f"ANY {this}"
    2691
    2692    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2693        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2694
    2695    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2697        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2698
    2699        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2700            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2701            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2702
    2703        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2704
    2705        if default:
    2706            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2707
    2708        statements.append("END")
    2709
    2710        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2711            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2712
    2713        return " ".join(statements)
    2714
    2715    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2717        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2718        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2719
    2720    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2721        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2722        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2723        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2724
    2725    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2727        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2728        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2729
    2730    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2731        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2732
    2733        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2734            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2735        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2736            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2737        else:
    2738            func_name = "TRIM"
    2739
    2740        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2741
    2742    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2743        args = expression.expressions
    2744        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2745            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2746
    2747        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2748            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2749
    2750        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2751            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2752
    2753        return args
    2754
    2755    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2756        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2757
    2758        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2759        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2760            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2761
    2762        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2763
    2764    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2765        return self.func(
    2766            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2767        )
    2768
    2769    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2770        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2771        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2772
    2773    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2774        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2775        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2776        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2777        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2778        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2779        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2780        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2781        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2782
    2783    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2785        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2786        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2787        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2788
    2789    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2790        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2791
    2792    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2793        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2794        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2795        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2796
    2797    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2799
    2800    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2801        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2802
    2803        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2804            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2805
    2806        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2807            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2808
    2809        return path
    2810
    2811    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2812        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2813            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2814            if not callable(transform):
    2815                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2816                return ""
    2817
    2818            return transform(self, expression)
    2819
    2820        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2821            return str(expression)
    2822
    2823        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2824            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2825            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2826        else:
    2827            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2828            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2829
    2830        return escaped
    2831
    2832    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2834
    2835    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2836        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2837        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2838
    2839        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2840        if unique_keys is not None:
    2841            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2842        else:
    2843            unique_keys = ""
    2844
    2845        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2846        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2847        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2848        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2849
    2850        return self.func(
    2851            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2852            *expression.expressions,
    2853            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2854        )
    2855
    2856    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2857        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2858
    2859    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2860        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2861        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2862        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2863        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2864        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2865        return self.func(
    2866            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2867        )
    2868
    2869    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2871        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2872        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2873        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2874        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2875        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2876        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2877        return self.func(
    2878            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2879            this,
    2880            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2881        )
    2882
    2883    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2884        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2885        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2886        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2887
    2888        if nested_schema:
    2889            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2890
    2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2892        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2893        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2894        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2895
    2896    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2897        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2898
    2899    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2902        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2903        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2904        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2905        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2906        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2907        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2908        return self.func(
    2909            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2910        )
    2911
    2912    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2915        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2916        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2917        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2918        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2919
    2920    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2922        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2923        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2924        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2925        with_ = (
    2926            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2927            if expressions
    2928            else ""
    2929        )
    2930        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2931
    2932    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2933        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2934        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2935        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2936        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2937
    2938        if query:
    2939            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2940        elif unnest:
    2941            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2942        elif field:
    2943            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2944        else:
    2945            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2946
    2947        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2948
    2949    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2950        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2951
    2952    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2953        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2954        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2955            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2956        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2957
    2958        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2959            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2960            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2961
    2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2963        if this:
    2964            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2965            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2966
    2967        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2968
    2969    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2970        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2971
    2972    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2975        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2977        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2978        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2979
    2980    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2981        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    2982        parent = expression.parent
    2983        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    2984        return self.func(
    2985            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    2986        )
    2987
    2988    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2989        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2990        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2991
    2992    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2993        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2994        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2995        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2996        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2997
    2998    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2999        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3000
    3001    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3003        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3004        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3005
    3006    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3007        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3008
    3009        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3010        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3011
    3012        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3013            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3014        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3015            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3016
    3017        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3018
    3019    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3021
    3022    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3024        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3025        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3026
    3027    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3029        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3030        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3031
    3032    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3034        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3035        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3036
    3037    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3038        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3039
    3040    def and_sql(
    3041        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3042    ) -> str:
    3043        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3044
    3045    def or_sql(
    3046        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3047    ) -> str:
    3048        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3049
    3050    def xor_sql(
    3051        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3052    ) -> str:
    3053        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3054
    3055    def connector_sql(
    3056        self,
    3057        expression: exp.Connector,
    3058        op: str,
    3059        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3060    ) -> str:
    3061        if stack is not None:
    3062            if expression.expressions:
    3063                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3064            else:
    3065                stack.append(expression.right)
    3066                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3067                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3068                        if comment:
    3069                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3070                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3071            return op
    3072
    3073        stack = [expression]
    3074        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3075        ops = set()
    3076
    3077        while stack:
    3078            node = stack.pop()
    3079            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3080                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3081            else:
    3082                sql = self.sql(node)
    3083                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3084                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3085                else:
    3086                    sqls.append(sql)
    3087
    3088        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3089        return sep.join(sqls)
    3090
    3091    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3092        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3093
    3094    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3095        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3096
    3097    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3098        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3099
    3100    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3101        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3102
    3103    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3104        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3105
    3106    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3107        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3108
    3109    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3110        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3111        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3112        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3113        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3114        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3115        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3116        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3117
    3118    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3119        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3120        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3121
    3122    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3123        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3124            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3125        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3126
    3127    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3128        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3129
    3130    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3132        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3133        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3134        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3135        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3136        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3137
    3138    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3140        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3141        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3142        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3143        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3144        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3145        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3146        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3147        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3148
    3149    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3150        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3151        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3152        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3153        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3154
    3155        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3156            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3157
    3158        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3159
    3160    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3161        return "BEGIN"
    3162
    3163    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3164        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3165        if chain is not None:
    3166            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3167
    3168        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3169
    3170    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3171        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3172        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3173        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3174
    3175    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3177
    3178        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3179        if dtype:
    3180            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3181            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3182            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3183            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3184            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3185
    3186        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3187        if default:
    3188            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3189
    3190        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3191        if comment:
    3192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3193
    3194        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3195        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3196
    3197        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3198            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3199
    3200        if allow_null is not None:
    3201            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3202            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3203
    3204        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3205
    3206    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3208        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3209            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3210        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3211
    3212    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3213        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3216        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3217        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3218
    3219    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3220        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3221            # Remove db from tables
    3222            expression = expression.transform(
    3223                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3224            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3226        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3227
    3228    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3229        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3230        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3231        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3232        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3233
    3234    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3235        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3236        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3237
    3238    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3239        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3240
    3241        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3242            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3243        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3244            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3245        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3246            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3247        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3248            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3249        else:
    3250            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3251
    3252        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3253        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3254        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3255        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3256        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3257        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3259        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3260
    3261        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3262
    3263    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3264        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3265            return self.expressions(
    3266                expression,
    3267                key="actions",
    3268                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3269                skip_first=True,
    3270            )
    3271        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3272
    3273    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3274        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3275        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3276        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3277
    3278    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3279        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3280
    3281    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3282        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3283
    3284        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3285            case = exp.case()
    3286            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3287                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3288            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3289
    3290        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3291
    3292        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3293        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3294        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3295
    3296    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3297        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3298
    3299    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3300        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3301
    3302    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3303        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3304        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3305        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3306        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3307
    3308    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3309        return self.sql(
    3310            exp.Cast(
    3311                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3312                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3313            )
    3314        )
    3315
    3316    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3317        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3318            return self.func(
    3319                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3320            )
    3321        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3322
    3323    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3324        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3325
    3326        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3327            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3328
    3329        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3330            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3331                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3332
    3333        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3334            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3335                return self.sql(
    3336                    exp.cast(
    3337                        l / r,
    3338                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3339                    )
    3340                )
    3341
    3342        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3343
    3344    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3345        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3346
    3347    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3348        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3349
    3350    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3352
    3353    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3354        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3355
    3356    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3357        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3358
    3359    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3360        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3361
    3362    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3363        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3364
    3365    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3366        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3367
    3368    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3369        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3370
    3371    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3372        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3373
    3374    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3375        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3376
    3377    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3378        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3379            return self.sql(
    3380                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3381            )
    3382        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3383
    3384    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3385        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3386
    3387    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3388        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3389
    3390    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3391        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3392
    3393    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3394        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3395
    3396    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3397        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3398
    3399    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3400        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3401
    3402    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3403        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3404
    3405    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3406        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3407
    3408    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3409        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3410
    3411    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3412        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3413
    3414    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3415        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3416
    3417    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3418        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3419
    3420    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3421        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3422
    3423    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3424        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3425            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3426            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3427
    3428        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3429
    3430    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3431        this = expression.this
    3432        expr = expression.expression
    3433
    3434        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3435            this, expr = expr, this
    3436        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3437            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3438                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3439
    3440            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3441
    3442        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3443
    3444    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3445        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3446        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3448        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3449        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3450
    3451    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3452        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3453        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3454        binary_type = type(expression)
    3455
    3456        while stack:
    3457            node = stack.pop()
    3458
    3459            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3460                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3461                if op_func:
    3462                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3463
    3464                stack.append(node.right)
    3465                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3466                stack.append(node.left)
    3467            else:
    3468                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3469
    3470        return "".join(sqls)
    3471
    3472    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3473        args = []
    3474
    3475        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3476            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3477
    3478            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3479                for value in arg_value:
    3480                    args.append(value)
    3481            elif arg_value is not None:
    3482                args.append(arg_value)
    3483
    3484        if self.normalize_functions:
    3485            name = expression.sql_name()
    3486        else:
    3487            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3488
    3489        return self.func(name, *args)
    3490
    3491    def func(
    3492        self,
    3493        name: str,
    3494        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3495        prefix: str = "(",
    3496        suffix: str = ")",
    3497        normalize: bool = True,
    3498    ) -> str:
    3499        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3500        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3501
    3502    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3503        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3504            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3505        )
    3506        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3507            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3508        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3509
    3510    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3511        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3512
    3513    def format_time(
    3514        self,
    3515        expression: exp.Expression,
    3516        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3517        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3518    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3519        return format_time(
    3520            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3521            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3522            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3523        )
    3524
    3525    def expressions(
    3526        self,
    3527        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3529        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3530        flat: bool = False,
    3531        indent: bool = True,
    3532        skip_first: bool = False,
    3533        skip_last: bool = False,
    3534        sep: str = ", ",
    3535        prefix: str = "",
    3536        dynamic: bool = False,
    3537        new_line: bool = False,
    3538    ) -> str:
    3539        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3540
    3541        if not expressions:
    3542            return ""
    3543
    3544        if flat:
    3545            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3546
    3547        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3548        result_sqls = []
    3549
    3550        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3551            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3552            if not sql:
    3553                continue
    3554
    3555            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3556
    3557            if self.pretty:
    3558                if self.leading_comma:
    3559                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3560                else:
    3561                    result_sqls.append(
    3562                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3563                    )
    3564            else:
    3565                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3566
    3567        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3568            if new_line:
    3569                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3570                result_sqls.append("")
    3571            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3572        else:
    3573            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3574
    3575        return (
    3576            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3577            if indent
    3578            else result_sql
    3579        )
    3580
    3581    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3582        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3583        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3584        if flat:
    3585            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3586        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3587
    3588    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3589        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3590        if not property_name:
    3591            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3592        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3593
    3594    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3595        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3596
    3597    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3598        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3599
    3600    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3602        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3603        expressions = (
    3604            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3605        )
    3606        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3607
    3608    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3611        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3612
    3613    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3614        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3615
    3616    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3617        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3618        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3619        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3620        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3621
    3622        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3623        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3624            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3625            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3626            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3627            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3628        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3629            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3630                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3631            else:
    3632                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3633        else:
    3634            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3635        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3636
    3637    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3638        table = expression.this
    3639        table_alias = ""
    3640
    3641        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3642        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3643            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3644            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3645
    3646        this = self.sql(table)
    3647        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3648        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3649        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3650        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3651        if returning:
    3652            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3653
    3654        sep = self.sep()
    3655
    3656        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3657            expression,
    3658            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3659        )
    3660
    3661    @unsupported_args("format")
    3662    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3663        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3664
    3665    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3666        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3667            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3668            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3669
    3670        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3671        if not fmt:
    3672            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3673            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3674
    3675        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3676
    3677    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3680        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3681        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3682        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3683
    3684    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3685        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3686        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3687        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3688        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3689
    3690    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3691        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3692
    3693    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3694        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3695
    3696    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3697    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3698        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3699        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3700        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3702        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3703        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3704        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3705
    3706    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3707        return ""
    3708
    3709    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3711        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3712        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3713        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3714        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3715
    3716    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3718        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3719
    3720        if having:
    3721            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3722
    3723        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3724
    3725    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3726        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3727        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3728        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3729        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3730        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3731        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3732        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3733        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3734        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3735        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3736        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3737        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3738        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3739
    3740    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3741        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3742        if key_block_size:
    3743            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3744
    3745        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3746        if using:
    3747            return f"USING {using}"
    3748
    3749        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3750        if parser:
    3751            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3752
    3753        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3754        if comment:
    3755            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3756
    3757        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3758        if visible is not None:
    3759            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3760
    3761        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3762        if engine_attr:
    3763            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3764
    3765        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3766        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3767            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3768
    3769        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3770        return ""
    3771
    3772    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3773        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3774        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3775
    3776    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3777        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3778        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3780        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3781        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3782        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3784        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3785        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3786        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3787        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3788
    3789    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3790        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3791            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3792
    3793        case = exp.Case().when(
    3794            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3795            expression.args["true"],
    3796            copy=False,
    3797        )
    3798        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3799        if else_cond:
    3800            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3801
    3802        return self.sql(case)
    3803
    3804    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3806        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3807        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3808        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3809        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3810        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3811
    3812    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3814
    3815    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3816        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3817
    3818    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3819        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3820        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3821        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3822        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3823        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3824        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3825
    3826    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3828        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3829        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3830
    3831    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3833        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3834        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3835
    3836    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3837        arg = expression.this
    3838        if not arg.type:
    3839            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3840
    3841            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3842
    3843        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3844            return self.sql(arg)
    3845
    3846        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3847        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3848
    3849    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3850        this = expression.this
    3851        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3852            return self.sql(this)
    3853
    3854        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3855
    3856    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3857        this = expression.this
    3858        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3859            return self.sql(this)
    3860
    3861        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3862
    3863    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3864        this = expression.this
    3865        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3866
    3867        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3868            return self.sql(
    3869                exp.cast(
    3870                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3871                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3872                )
    3873            )
    3874
    3875        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3876            return self.sql(this)
    3877
    3878        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3879
    3880    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3881        return self.sql(
    3882            exp.func(
    3883                "DATEDIFF",
    3884                expression.this,
    3885                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3886                "day",
    3887            )
    3888        )
    3889
    3890    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3891        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3892            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3893
    3894        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3895        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3896            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3897
    3898        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3899
    3900    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3901        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3902
    3903        return self.func(
    3904            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3905        )
    3906
    3907    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3908        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3909            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3910            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3911            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3912            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3913
    3914        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3915
    3916        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3917        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3918            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3919
    3920        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3921
    3922    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3923        expression.set(
    3924            "expressions",
    3925            [
    3926                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3927                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3928                else e
    3929                for e in expression.expressions
    3930            ],
    3931        )
    3932
    3933        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3934
    3935    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3936        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3937        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3938
    3939        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3940
    3941    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3942        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3943        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3944
    3945        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3946
    3947        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3948        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3949
    3950        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3951        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3952
    3953        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3954        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3955
    3956        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3957        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3958
    3959        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3960
    3961    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3962    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3963    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3964        to = expression.this
    3965        value = expression.expression
    3966        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3967        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3968        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3969
    3970        if not to or not value:
    3971            return ""
    3972
    3973        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3974        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3975            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3976
    3977        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3978        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3979
    3980        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3981        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3982            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3983
    3984            style_value = style.name
    3985            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3986            if not converted_style:
    3987                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3988
    3989            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3990
    3991            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3992                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3993            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3994                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3995            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3996                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3997            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3998                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    3999
    4000        if not transformed:
    4001            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4002
    4003        return self.sql(transformed)
    4004
    4005    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4006        this = expression.this
    4007        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4008            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4009            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4010
    4011        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4012            return f".{this}"
    4013
    4014        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4015        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    4016
    4017    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4018        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4019        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4020
    4021    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4022        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4023            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4024
    4025            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4026
    4027        return expression
    4028
    4029    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4030        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4031            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4032            mods = sorted(
    4033                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4034                key=lambda x: 0
    4035                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4036                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4037            )
    4038
    4039            if mods:
    4040                mod = mods[0]
    4041                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4042                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4043                mod.this.replace(this)
    4044                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4045
    4046            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4047
    4048            if agg_func:
    4049                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4050
    4051        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4052
    4053    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4054        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4055        if self.pretty:
    4056            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4057        return string
    4058
    4059    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4060        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4061
    4062        if expression.expressions:
    4063            upper = option.upper()
    4064
    4065            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4066            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4067
    4068            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4069            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4070            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4071            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4072
    4073        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4074
    4075        if not value:
    4076            return option
    4077
    4078        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4079
    4080        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4081
    4082    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4083        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4084        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4085            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4086            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4087            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4088        else:
    4089            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4090            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4091            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4092
    4093        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4094        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4095
    4096        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4097        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4098
    4099        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4100        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4101
    4102        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4103        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4104
    4105        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4106
    4107    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4109        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4110
    4111        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4112        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4113        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4114        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4115
    4116        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4117        params = self.expressions(
    4118            expression,
    4119            key="params",
    4120            sep=sep,
    4121            new_line=True,
    4122            skip_last=True,
    4123            skip_first=True,
    4124            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4125        )
    4126
    4127        if params:
    4128            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4129                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4130            elif not self.pretty:
    4131                params = f" {params}"
    4132
    4133        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4134
    4135    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4136        return ""
    4137
    4138    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4139        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4140        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4141        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4142        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4143        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4144
    4145        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4146            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4147
    4148        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4149
    4150    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4151        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4152    ) -> str:
    4153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4154        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4155        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4156        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4157
    4158    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4160        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4161        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4162
    4163    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4164        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4165
    4166    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4168        expr = expression.expression
    4169
    4170        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4171            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4172            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4173        else:
    4174            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4175
    4176        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4177
    4178    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4179        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4180            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4181
    4182        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4183
    4184    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4185        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4186        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4187
    4188        if lower and upper:
    4189            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4190        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4191
    4192    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4193        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4194        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4195        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4196        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4197        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4198        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4199
    4200        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4201
    4202    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4203        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4204
    4205        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4206        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4207            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4208
    4209        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4210
    4211    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4212        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4213        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4214
    4215    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4216        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4217
    4218        parent = expression.parent
    4219        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4220            parent = parent.parent
    4221
    4222        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4223            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4224
    4225        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4226            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4227
    4228        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4229
    4230    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4231        exprs = expression.expressions
    4232        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4233            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4234        else:
    4235            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4236
    4237        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
    4238
    4239    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4240        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4241            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4242
    4243        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4244        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4245        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4246
    4247        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4248            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4249                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4250            )
    4251
    4252        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4253
    4254        return self.sql(expr)
    4255
    4256    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4258        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4259
    4260        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4261
    4262        if _with is None:
    4263            with_sql = ""
    4264        elif not _with:
    4265            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4266        else:
    4267            with_sql = " WITH"
    4268
    4269        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4270
    4271        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4272
    4273    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4274        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4275            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4276
    4277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4278        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4279        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4280
    4281        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4282        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4283
    4284        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4285
    4286    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4287        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4288        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4289        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4290        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4291        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4292
    4293    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4295        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4296        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4297        return res
    4298
    4299    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4300        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4301        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4302        empty = (
    4303            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4304            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4305            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4306        )
    4307
    4308        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4309        error = (
    4310            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4311            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4312            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4313        )
    4314
    4315        if error and empty:
    4316            error = (
    4317                f"{empty} {error}"
    4318                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4319                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4320            )
    4321            empty = ""
    4322
    4323        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4324
    4325        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4326
    4327    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4329        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4330
    4331        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4332        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4333
    4334        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4335        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4336
    4337        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4338
    4339        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4340
    4341    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4342        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4343
    4344        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4345            parent = expression.parent
    4346            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4347                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4348                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4349            else:
    4350                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4351                this = expression.this
    4352                this_sql = (
    4353                    self.expressions(this)
    4354                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4355                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4356                )
    4357                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4358
    4359        return array_agg
    4360
    4361    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4363        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4364
    4365        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4366
    4367    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4368        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4369
    4370        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4371        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4372
    4373        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4374        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4375
    4376        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4377
    4378        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4379
    4380        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4381
    4382    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4384        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4385        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4386
    4387        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4388
    4389    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4391
    4392        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4393        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4394
    4395        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4396
    4397    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4398        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4399        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4400            func = f"*{func}"
    4401
    4402        return func
    4403
    4404    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4405        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4406        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4407        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4408        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4409        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4410
    4411        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]: View Source

    30def unsupported_args(
    31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
    32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
    33    """
    34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
    35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
    36    """
    37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
    38    for arg in args:
    39        if isinstance(arg, str):
    40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
    41        else:
    42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
    43
    44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
    45        @wraps(func)
    46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
    47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
    48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
    49
    50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
    51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
    52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
    53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
    54                    )
    55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
    56
    57            return func(generator, expression)
    58
    59        return _func
    60
    61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator: View Source

      75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      76    """
      77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      78
      79    Args:
      80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
      81            Default: False.
      82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      84            True or 'always': Always quote.
      85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      87            Default: False.
      88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
      89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
      90            Default: 2.
      91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
      92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
      93            Default: 2.
      94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
      95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      97            False: Disables function name normalization.
      98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
     100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
     101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
     102            Default: 3
     103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
     104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
     105            Default: False
     106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
     107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
     108            line length.
     109            Default: 80
     110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
     111            Default: True
     112    """
     113
     114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
     115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
     116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
     117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
     118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
     119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
     120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
     123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
     124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
     126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
     133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
     136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
     137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
     140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
     141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
     144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
     145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
     146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
     147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
     156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
     161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
     165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
     173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
     174        ),
     175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
     177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
     184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
     186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
     188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
     189        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
     190        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
     191        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     192        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     193        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     194        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     195        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
     196        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
     197        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
     198        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
     199        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
     200        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     201        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     202        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
     203        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     204        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     205        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
     206    }
     207
     208    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
     209    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
     210    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
     211    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     212
     213    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     214    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     215    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     216
     217    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     218    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     219
     220    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
     221    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
     222
     223    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     224    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     225
     226    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     227    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     228
     229    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     230    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     231
     232    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     233    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     234
     235    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     236    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     237
     238    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     239    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     240
     241    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     242    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     243
     244    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     245    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     246
     247    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     248    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     249
     250    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     251    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     252
     253    # Whether join hints should be generated
     254    JOIN_HINTS = True
     255
     256    # Whether table hints should be generated
     257    TABLE_HINTS = True
     258
     259    # Whether query hints should be generated
     260    QUERY_HINTS = True
     261
     262    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     263    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     264
     265    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     266    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     267
     268    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     269    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     270
     271    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     272    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     273
     274    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     275    RETURNING_END = True
     276
     277    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     278    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     279
     280    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     281    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     282
     283    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
     284    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     285
     286    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     287    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     288
     289    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     290    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     291    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     292    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     293
     294    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     295    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     296
     297    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     298    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     299
     300    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     301    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     302
     303    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     304    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     305
     306    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     307    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     308
     309    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     310    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     311
     312    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     313    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     314
     315    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     316    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     317
     318    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     319    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     320
     321    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     322    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     323
     324    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     325    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     326
     327    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     328    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     329
     330    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     331    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     332
     333    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     334    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     335
     336    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     337    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     338
     339    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     340    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     341
     342    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     343    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     344
     345    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
     346    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     347
     348    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     349    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     350
     351    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     352    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     353
     354    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     355    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     356
     357    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     358    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     359
     360    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
     361    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     362
     363    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     364    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     365
     366    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     367    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     368
     369    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     370    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     371    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     372
     373    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     374    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     375
     376    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     377    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     378
     379    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     380    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     381
     382    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     383    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     384
     385    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
     386    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
     387
     388    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
     389    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
     390
     391    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
     392    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
     393    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
     394    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
     395
     396    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
     397    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
     398
     399    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
     400    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
     401
     402    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
     403    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
     404
     405    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
     406    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
     407
     408    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
     409    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
     410
     411    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
     412    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
     413
     414    # The HEX function name
     415    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
     416
     417    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
     418    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
     419
     420    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
     421    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
     422
     423    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
     424    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
     425
     426    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
     427    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
     428
     429    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
     430    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
     431
     432    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
     433    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
     434
     435    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
     436    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
     437
     438    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     439        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     440        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     444        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     445        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     446        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     447        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     448        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
     449    }
     450
     451    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     452        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     453        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     454        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     455        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     456        "DAYS": "DAY",
     457        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     458        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     459        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     460        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     461    }
     462
     463    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
     464        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
     465        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
     466        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
     467        "windows": lambda self, e: (
     468            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
     469            if e.args.get("windows")
     470            else ""
     471        ),
     472        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
     473    }
     474
     475    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     476
     477    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     478
     479    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     480    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
     481
     482    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     483        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     484        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     485        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     486        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     487        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     488        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     489        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     490        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     491        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     492        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     493        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     494        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     495        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     496        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     497        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     498        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     499        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     500        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     501        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     502        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     503        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     504        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     505        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     506        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     507        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     508        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     509        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     510        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     511        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     512        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     513        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     514        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     515        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     516        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     517        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     518        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     519        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     520        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     521        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     522        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     523        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     524        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     525        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     526        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     527        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     528        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     529        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     530        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     531        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     532        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     533        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     534        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     535        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     536        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     537        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     538        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     539        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     540        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     541        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     542        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     543        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     544        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     545        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     546        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     547        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     548        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     549        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     550        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     551        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     552        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     553        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     554        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     555        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     556        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     557        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     558        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     559        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     560        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     561        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     562        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     563        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     564        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     565        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     566        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     567        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     568        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     569        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     570    }
     571
     572    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     573    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     574
     575    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     576    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     577        exp.Command,
     578        exp.Create,
     579        exp.Delete,
     580        exp.Drop,
     581        exp.From,
     582        exp.Insert,
     583        exp.Join,
     584        exp.MultitableInserts,
     585        exp.Select,
     586        exp.SetOperation,
     587        exp.Update,
     588        exp.Where,
     589        exp.With,
     590    )
     591
     592    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     593    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     594        exp.Binary,
     595        exp.SetOperation,
     596    )
     597
     598    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     599    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     600        exp.Column,
     601        exp.Literal,
     602        exp.Neg,
     603        exp.Paren,
     604    )
     605
     606    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
     607        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
     608        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
     609        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
     610        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
     611    }
     612
     613    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     614    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     615
     616    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     617
     618    __slots__ = (
     619        "pretty",
     620        "identify",
     621        "normalize",
     622        "pad",
     623        "_indent",
     624        "normalize_functions",
     625        "unsupported_level",
     626        "max_unsupported",
     627        "leading_comma",
     628        "max_text_width",
     629        "comments",
     630        "dialect",
     631        "unsupported_messages",
     632        "_escaped_quote_end",
     633        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     634        "_next_name",
     635        "_identifier_start",
     636        "_identifier_end",
     637    )
     638
     639    def __init__(
     640        self,
     641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     642        identify: str | bool = False,
     643        normalize: bool = False,
     644        pad: int = 2,
     645        indent: int = 2,
     646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     649        leading_comma: bool = False,
     650        max_text_width: int = 80,
     651        comments: bool = True,
     652        dialect: DialectType = None,
     653    ):
     654        import sqlglot
     655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     656
     657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     658        self.identify = identify
     659        self.normalize = normalize
     660        self.pad = pad
     661        self._indent = indent
     662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     666        self.comments = comments
     667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     668
     669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     670        self.normalize_functions = (
     671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     672        )
     673
     674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     677        )
     678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
     679
     680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
     681
     682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
     683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     684
     685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     686        """
     687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     688
     689        Args:
     690            expression: The syntax tree.
     691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     692                it is safer to copy.
     693
     694        Returns:
     695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     696        """
     697        if copy:
     698            expression = expression.copy()
     699
     700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     701
     702        self.unsupported_messages = []
     703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     704
     705        if self.pretty:
     706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     707
     708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     709            return sql
     710
     711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     713                logger.warning(msg)
     714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     716
     717        return sql
     718
     719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     722
     723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     725
     726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     727
     728        return expression
     729
     730    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
     731        if (
     732            not expression.parent
     733            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     734            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     735        ):
     736            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     737
     738            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     739        return expression
     740
     741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     745
     746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     748
     749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     751
     752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     755        return comment
     756
     757    def maybe_comment(
     758        self,
     759        sql: str,
     760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     762        separated: bool = False,
     763    ) -> str:
     764        comments = (
     765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     766            if self.comments
     767            else None
     768        )
     769
     770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     771            return sql
     772
     773        comments_sql = " ".join(
     774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     775        )
     776
     777        if not comments_sql:
     778            return sql
     779
     780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
     781
     782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     783            return (
     784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
     786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     787            )
     788
     789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     790
     791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     792        this_sql = (
     793            self.sql(expression)
     794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
     795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
     796        )
     797        if not this_sql:
     798            return "()"
     799
     800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
     801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     802
     803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     804        original = self.identify
     805        self.identify = False
     806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     807        self.identify = original
     808        return result
     809
     810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     812            return name.upper()
     813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     814            return name.lower()
     815        return name
     816
     817    def indent(
     818        self,
     819        sql: str,
     820        level: int = 0,
     821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     822        skip_first: bool = False,
     823        skip_last: bool = False,
     824    ) -> str:
     825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
     826            return sql
     827
     828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     829        lines = sql.split("\n")
     830
     831        return "\n".join(
     832            (
     833                line
     834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     836            )
     837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     838        )
     839
     840    def sql(
     841        self,
     842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     844        comment: bool = True,
     845    ) -> str:
     846        if not expression:
     847            return ""
     848
     849        if isinstance(expression, str):
     850            return expression
     851
     852        if key:
     853            value = expression.args.get(key)
     854            if value:
     855                return self.sql(value)
     856            return ""
     857
     858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     859
     860        if callable(transform):
     861            sql = transform(self, expression)
     862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     864
     865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     871            else:
     872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     873        else:
     874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     875
     876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     877
     878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     882
     883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     886        options = expression.args.get("options")
     887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     892
     893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     898
     899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     900        return ".".join(
     901            self.sql(part)
     902            for part in (
     903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     904                expression.args.get("db"),
     905                expression.args.get("table"),
     906                expression.args.get("this"),
     907            )
     908            if part
     909        )
     910
     911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     913
     914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
     915            join_mark = ""
     916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     917
     918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
     919
     920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     924        return f"{position}{this}"
     925
     926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     935
     936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     937            kind = ""
     938
     939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     940
     941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     945
     946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     952        else:
     953            persisted = ""
     954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     955
     956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     958
     959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     962        else:
     963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     964
     965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     966
     967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     969    ) -> str:
     970        this = ""
     971        if expression.this is not None:
     972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     974
     975        start = expression.args.get("start")
     976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     984        cycle_sql = ""
     985
     986        if cycle is not None:
     987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     989
     990        sequence_opts = ""
     991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     994
     995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     997
     998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     999
    1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1002    ) -> str:
    1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
    1006
    1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1009    ) -> str:
    1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    1011
    1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
    1014
    1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1017
    1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1020        if desc is not None:
    1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"
    1023
    1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
    1033
    1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1036
    1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1042
    1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1044
    1045        properties_sql = ""
    1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1048        ):
    1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1050                exp.Properties(
    1051                    expressions=[
    1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1054                    ]
    1055                )
    1056            )
    1057
    1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1060            elif not self.pretty:
    1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1063
    1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1066
    1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1068        if expression_sql:
    1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1070
    1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1075                        exp.Properties(
    1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1077                        ),
    1078                        wrapped=False,
    1079                    )
    1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1082
    1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1087                wrapped=False,
    1088                prefix=" ",
    1089            )
    1090
    1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1094
    1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1098
    1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1100        if clustered is None:
    1101            clustered_sql = ""
    1102        elif clustered:
    1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1104        else:
    1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1106
    1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1111                sep=" ",
    1112                prefix=" ",
    1113                wrapped=False,
    1114            )
    1115
    1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1117
    1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1121                exp.Properties(
    1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1123                ),
    1124                sep=" ",
    1125                prefix=" ",
    1126                wrapped=False,
    1127            )
    1128
    1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1131        no_schema_binding = (
    1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1133        )
    1134
    1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1137
    1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
    1140
    1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1152
    1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1154        if cache is None:
    1155            cache_str = ""
    1156        elif cache is True:
    1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1158        else:
    1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1160
    1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1163
    1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
    1165
    1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
    1171
    1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
    1178
    1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
    1182
    1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1185        if with_:
    1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1187        return sql
    1188
    1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1191        recursive = (
    1192            "RECURSIVE "
    1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1194            else ""
    1195        )
    1196
    1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
    1198
    1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1201
    1202        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1203        if materialized is False:
    1204            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1205        elif materialized:
    1206            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1207
    1208        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
    1209
    1210    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1211        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1212        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1213        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1214
    1215        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1216            columns = ""
    1217            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1218
    1219        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1220            alias = self._next_name()
    1221
    1222        return f"{alias}{columns}"
    1223
    1224    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1226        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1227            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1228        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1229
    1230    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1232        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1233            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1234        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1235
    1236    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1238        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1239            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1240        return this
    1241
    1242    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1244        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1245
    1246        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1247            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1248            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1249        else:
    1250            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1251            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1252
    1253        if escape:
    1254            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1255            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1256        else:
    1257            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1258            escape_sql = ""
    1259
    1260        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1261            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1262
    1263        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
    1264
    1265    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1266        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1267        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1268
    1269    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1271        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1272        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1273        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1274
    1275    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1276        nested = ""
    1277        values = ""
    1278        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1279
    1280        type_value = expression.this
    1281        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1282            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1283        else:
    1284            type_sql = (
    1285                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1286                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1287                else type_value
    1288            )
    1289
    1290        if interior:
    1291            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1292                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1293                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1294                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1295                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1296                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1297            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1298                nested = f" {interior}"
    1299            else:
    1300                nested = f"({interior})"
    1301
    1302        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1303        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1305            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1306        ):
    1307            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1308
    1309        return type_sql
    1310
    1311    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1312        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1313        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1314        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1315        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1316
    1317    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1319        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1320        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1321        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1322        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1323        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1324        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1326        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1327        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1328        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1329        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1330            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1331        else:
    1332            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1334
    1335    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1337        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1338        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1339        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1340        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1341        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1342        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1343        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1344        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1345        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1346        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1347        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1348        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1349        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1350        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1351
    1352    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1353        op_type = type(expression)
    1354        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1355
    1356        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1357        if (
    1358            distinct is False
    1359            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1360            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1361        ):
    1362            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1363
    1364        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1365
    1366        if distinct is None:
    1367            distinct = default_distinct
    1368            if distinct is None:
    1369                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1370
    1371        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1372            kind = ""
    1373        else:
    1374            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1375
    1376        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1377        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
    1378
    1379    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1380        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1381            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1382            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1383
    1384            if limit or order:
    1385                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1386                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1387                )
    1388
    1389                if limit:
    1390                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1391                if order:
    1392                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1393                return self.sql(select)
    1394
    1395        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1396        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1397
    1398        while stack:
    1399            node = stack.pop()
    1400
    1401            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1402                stack.append(node.expression)
    1403                stack.append(
    1404                    self.maybe_comment(
    1405                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1406                    )
    1407                )
    1408                stack.append(node.this)
    1409            else:
    1410                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1411
    1412        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1413        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1414        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
    1415
    1416    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1417        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1418        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1419        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1420        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1421        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1422            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1423        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1424        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1425
    1426    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1427        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1428            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1429            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1430            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1431
    1432        agg = expression.this
    1433        agg_arg = agg.this
    1434        cond = expression.expression.this
    1435        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1436        return self.sql(agg)
    1437
    1438    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1439        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1440            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1441            return ""
    1442
    1443        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1444
    1445    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1446        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1447        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1448        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1449        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1450        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1451        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1452        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1453        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1454        if include:
    1455            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1456        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1457        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1458        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1459        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1462
    1463        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
    1464
    1465    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1466        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1467        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1468        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1469        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1470        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1471        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1472        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1473
    1474        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1475
    1476        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1477        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
    1478
    1479    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1480        text = expression.name
    1481        lower = text.lower()
    1482        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1483        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1484        if (
    1485            expression.quoted
    1486            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1487            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1488            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1489        ):
    1490            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1491        return text
    1492
    1493    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1495        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1497
    1498        return text
    1499
    1500    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1502        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1504        return text
    1505
    1506    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1507        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1508        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1509        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1510        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1511        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1512
    1513    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1514        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1515        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1516
    1517    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1518        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1519
    1520    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1521        root_properties = []
    1522        with_properties = []
    1523
    1524        for p in expression.expressions:
    1525            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1526            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1527                with_properties.append(p)
    1528            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1529                root_properties.append(p)
    1530
    1531        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1532        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1533
    1534        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1535            with_props = " " + with_props
    1536
    1537        return root_props + with_props
    1538
    1539    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1540        if properties.expressions:
    1541            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1542        return ""
    1543
    1544    def properties(
    1545        self,
    1546        properties: exp.Properties,
    1547        prefix: str = "",
    1548        sep: str = ", ",
    1549        suffix: str = "",
    1550        wrapped: bool = True,
    1551    ) -> str:
    1552        if properties.expressions:
    1553            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1554            if expressions:
    1555                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1556                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1557        return ""
    1558
    1559    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1560        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
    1561
    1562    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1563        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1564        for p in properties.expressions:
    1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1566            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1567                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1568            else:
    1569                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1570
    1571        return properties_locs
    1572
    1573    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1574        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1575            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1576        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1577
    1578    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1579        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1580        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1581            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1582
    1583        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1584        if not property_name:
    1585            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1586
    1587        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1588
    1589    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1590        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1591            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1592            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1593
    1594            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1595            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1596                like = f"({like})"
    1597
    1598            return like
    1599
    1600        if expression.expressions:
    1601            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1602
    1603        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1604        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1605
    1606    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1607        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1608        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1609        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1610
    1611    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1612        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1613        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1614        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1615        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1616        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1617        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1618        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1619
    1620    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1621        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1622        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1623        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1624
    1625    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1626        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1627            property = "DEFAULT"
    1628        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1629            property = "ON"
    1630        else:
    1631            property = "OFF"
    1632        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1633
    1634    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1635        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1636            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1637        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1638            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1639
    1640        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1641        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1642
    1643    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1644        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1645        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1646        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1647        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1648            if default:
    1649                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1650            elif minimum:
    1651                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1652            else:
    1653                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1654            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1655        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1656        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1657        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1658
    1659    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1660        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1661        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1662        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1663        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1664        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1665
    1666        if autotemp is not None:
    1667            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1668        elif always:
    1669            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1670        elif default:
    1671            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1672        elif manual:
    1673            prop = "MANUAL"
    1674        elif never:
    1675            prop = "NEVER"
    1676        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1677
    1678    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1679        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1680        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1681        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1682        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1683        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1684        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1685        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
    1686
    1687    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1688        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1689            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1690        if expression.this:
    1691            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1692            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1693            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1694
    1695        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1696        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1697        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1698
    1699    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1701
    1702        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1703        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1704            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1705        else:
    1706            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1707
    1708        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1709
    1710    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1711        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1712        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1713        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1714        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1715        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1716        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1717        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1718
    1719    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1720        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1721        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1722        statistics_sql = ""
    1723        if statistics is not None:
    1724            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1725        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1726
    1727    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1729        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1730        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1731        data_consistency = (
    1732            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1733        )
    1734        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1735        retention_period = (
    1736            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1737        )
    1738
    1739        if this:
    1740            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1741        else:
    1742            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1743
    1744        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1745
    1746        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
    1747
    1748    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1749        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1750        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1751
    1752        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1753            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1754        else:
    1755            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1756
    1757        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1758        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1759        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1760        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1761        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1762        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1763        if is_function:
    1764            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1765        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1766
    1767        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1768        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1769        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1770        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1771        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1772        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1773        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1774        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1775
    1776        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1777            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1778        else:
    1779            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1780
    1781        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1782        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1783        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1784        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1785
    1786        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1787        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1788
    1789        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1791
    1792    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1794
    1795    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1800        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1801
    1802    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1803        return expression.name
    1804
    1805    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1806        return expression.name
    1807
    1808    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1809        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1810
    1811        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1812        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1813
    1814        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1815        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1816        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1817
    1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1819        if expressions:
    1820            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1821            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1822
    1823        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
    1824
    1825    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1826        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1827
    1828    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1829        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1830        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1831        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1832        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1833        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1834        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1835        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1836        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1837        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1838        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1839        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1840        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1841        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1842
    1843    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1844        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1845
    1846    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1847        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1848        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1849        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1850        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1851
    1852    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1855        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1856        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1857
    1858    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1859        return ".".join(
    1860            self.sql(part)
    1861            for part in (
    1862                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1863                expression.args.get("db"),
    1864                expression.args.get("this"),
    1865            )
    1866            if part is not None
    1867        )
    1868
    1869    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1870        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1871        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1872        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1873        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1874        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1875        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1877        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1878
    1879        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1880        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1881            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1882            sample_post_alias = ""
    1883        else:
    1884            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1885            sample_post_alias = sample
    1886
    1887        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1888        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1889        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1890        joins = self.indent(
    1891            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1892        )
    1893        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1894
    1895        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1896        if file_format:
    1897            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1898            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1899            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1900
    1901        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1902        if ordinality:
    1903            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1904            alias = ""
    1905
    1906        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1907        if when:
    1908            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1909
    1910        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1911        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1912
    1913        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1914        if rows_from:
    1915            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1916
    1917        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1918
    1919    def tablesample_sql(
    1920        self,
    1921        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1922        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1923    ) -> str:
    1924        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1925        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1926        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1927        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1928        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1929        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1930        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1931        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1932        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1933
    1934        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1935        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1936            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1937
    1938        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1939        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1940            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1941
    1942        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1943        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1944            expr = f"({expr})"
    1945
    1946        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
    1947
    1948    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1950
    1951        if expression.this:
    1952            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1953            if not expressions:
    1954                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1955
    1956            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1957            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1958            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1959            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1960            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1961
    1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1964        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1965
    1966        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1967
    1968        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1969        if include_nulls is not None:
    1970            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1971        else:
    1972            nulls = ""
    1973
    1974        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1975        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1976        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
    1977
    1978    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1979        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1980        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1981        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1982        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1983
    1984    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1985        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
    1986
    1987    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1989        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1990        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1991        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1992        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1993        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1994        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1995        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1996            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1997        else:
    1998            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1999        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2000        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2001
    2002    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2003        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2004
    2005        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2006        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2007            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2008            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2009            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2010            values = (
    2011                f"({values})"
    2012                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2013                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2014                else values
    2015            )
    2016            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2017
    2018        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2019        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2020        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2021
    2022        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2023
    2024        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2025            row = tup.expressions
    2026
    2027            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2028                row = [
    2029                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2030                ]
    2031
    2032            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2033
    2034        if self.pretty:
    2035            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2036            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2037            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2038            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2039            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2040
    2041        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2042        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2043        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    2044
    2045    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2046        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    2047
    2048    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2049    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2050        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2051        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2052        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2053
    2054    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2055        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2056
    2057    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2058        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2059        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
    2060
    2061    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2063        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
    2064
    2065    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2067        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
    2068
    2069    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2070        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2071        if group_by_all is True:
    2072            modifier = " ALL"
    2073        elif group_by_all is False:
    2074            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2075        else:
    2076            modifier = ""
    2077
    2078        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2079
    2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2081        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2082        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2083
    2084        groupings = csv(
    2085            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2086            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2087            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2088            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2089            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2090        )
    2091
    2092        if (
    2093            expression.expressions
    2094            and groupings
    2095            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2096        ):
    2097            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2098
    2099        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    2100
    2101    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2103        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2104
    2105    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2106        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2107        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2108        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2109        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2110        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2111        return start + connect
    2112
    2113    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2114        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2115
    2116    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2117        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2118            side = None
    2119        else:
    2120            side = expression.side
    2121
    2122        op_sql = " ".join(
    2123            op
    2124            for op in (
    2125                expression.method,
    2126                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2127                side,
    2128                expression.kind,
    2129                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2130            )
    2131            if op
    2132        )
    2133        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2134        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2135        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2136        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2137
    2138        if not on_sql and using:
    2139            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2140
    2141        this = expression.this
    2142        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2143
    2144        if on_sql:
    2145            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2146            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2147            if using:
    2148                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2149            else:
    2150                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2151        elif not op_sql:
    2152            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2153                return f" {this_sql}"
    2154
    2155            return f", {this_sql}"
    2156
    2157        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2158            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2159
    2160        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
    2161
    2162    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2163        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2164        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2165        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2166
    2167    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2168        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2169
    2170        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2171        if cross_apply is True:
    2172            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2173        elif cross_apply is False:
    2174            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2175        else:
    2176            op = ""
    2177
    2178        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    2179
    2180    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2182
    2183        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2184            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2185            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2186            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2187            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2188            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2189            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2190
    2191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2193        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    2194
    2195    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2197
    2198        args = [
    2199            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2200            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2201            if e
    2202        ]
    2203
    2204        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2205        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2208
    2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    2210
    2211    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2213        value = expression.expression
    2214        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2216        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    2218
    2219    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2220        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2221        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2224        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2225        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2226        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2227        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    2228
    2229    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2230        expressions = (
    2231            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2232        )
    2233        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2234        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    2235
    2236    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2237        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2238
    2239    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2240        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2241            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2242            return ""
    2243
    2244        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2246        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2247        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2248
    2249        if wait is not None:
    2250            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2251                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2252            else:
    2253                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2254
    2255        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    2256
    2257    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2258        text = expression.this or ""
    2259        if expression.is_string:
    2260            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2261        return text
    2262
    2263    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2264        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2265            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2266            text = "".join(
    2267                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2268            )
    2269
    2270        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2271            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2272        )
    2273
    2274    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2275        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2276        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2277        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2278        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2279        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2280        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2281        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2282        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2283        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2284        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2285        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    2286
    2287    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2288        return "NULL"
    2289
    2290    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2291        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    2292
    2293    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2295        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2296        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2297        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    2298
    2299    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2300        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2301        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2302        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2303        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2304        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2305        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2306        interpolated_values = [
    2307            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2308            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2309        ]
    2310        interpolate = (
    2311            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2312        )
    2313        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
    2314
    2315    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2316        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    2317
    2318    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2319        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    2320
    2321    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2322        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    2323
    2324    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2325        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2326        asc = not desc
    2327
    2328        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2329        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2330        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2331        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2332        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2333
    2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2335
    2336        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2337        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2338        if nulls_first and (
    2339            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2340        ):
    2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2342        elif (
    2343            nulls_last
    2344            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2345            and not nulls_are_last
    2346        ):
    2347            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2348
    2349        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2350        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2351            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2352            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2353                self.unsupported(
    2354                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2355                )
    2356                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2357            elif (
    2358                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2359                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2360                and (
    2361                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2362                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2363                )
    2364            ):
    2365                self.unsupported(
    2366                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2367                )
    2368                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2369            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2370                if expression.this.is_int:
    2371                    self.unsupported(
    2372                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2373                    )
    2374                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2375                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2376                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2377                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2378
    2379        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2380        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2381
    2382        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2383
    2384    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2385        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2386        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2387
    2388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2389
    2390        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
    2391
    2392    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2393        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2394        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2395        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2396        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2397        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2398        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2399        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2400        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2401        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2402        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2403        definition_sqls = [
    2404            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2405            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2406        ]
    2407        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2408        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2409        body = "".join(
    2410            (
    2411                partition,
    2412                order,
    2413                measures,
    2414                rows,
    2415                after,
    2416                pattern,
    2417                define,
    2418            )
    2419        )
    2420        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2421        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2422        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2423
    2424    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2425        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2426
    2427        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2428            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2429        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2430            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2431
    2432        return csv(
    2433            *sqls,
    2434            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2435            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2436            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2437            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2438            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2439            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2440            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2441            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2442            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2443            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2444            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2445            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2446            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2447            sep="",
    2448        )
    2449
    2450    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2451        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2452        return f" {options}" if options else ""
    2453
    2454    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2455        return ""
    2456
    2457    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2458        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2459    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2460        return [
    2461            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2462            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2463        ]
    2464
    2465    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2466        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2467        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2468        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2469
    2470    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2471        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2472        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2473            into.pop()
    2474
    2475        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2476        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2477        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2479
    2480        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2481        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2482            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2483            limit.pop()
    2484        else:
    2485            top = ""
    2486
    2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2488
    2489        if kind:
    2490            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2491                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2492            else:
    2493                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2494                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2495                        sqls=[
    2496                            self.sql(
    2497                                exp.Struct(
    2498                                    expressions=[
    2499                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2500                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2501                                        else e
    2502                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2503                                    ]
    2504                                )
    2505                            )
    2506                        ]
    2507                    )
    2508                kind = ""
    2509
    2510        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2511        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2512        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2513        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2514        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2515            expression,
    2516            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2517            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2518            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2519        )
    2520
    2521        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2522
    2523        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2524            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2525                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2526            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2527                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2528            else:
    2529                table_kind = ""
    2530            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2531
    2532        return sql
    2533
    2534    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2536        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2537        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2538
    2539    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2540        if expression.expressions:
    2541            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2542        return ""
    2543
    2544    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2545        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2546        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2547        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2548        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2549        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2550        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2551        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
    2552
    2553    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2555        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2556
    2557    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2559        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2560        if kind:
    2561            kind = f"{kind}."
    2562        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2563
    2564    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2565        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
    2566
    2567    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2568        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2569        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2570        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2571        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2572            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2573
    2574            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2575            expression.set("sample", None)
    2576
    2577        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2578        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2580
    2581    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2582        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2583        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2584
    2585    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2586        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2587
    2588        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2589        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2590
    2591        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2592            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2593                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2594
    2595        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2596            columns = alias.columns
    2597            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2598        else:
    2599            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2600
    2601        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2602        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2603            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2604        else:
    2605            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2606                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2607            elif offset:
    2608                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2609            else:
    2610                suffix = alias
    2611
    2612        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2613
    2614    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2615        return ""
    2616
    2617    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2619        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2620
    2621    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2623        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2625        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2626        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2627        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2628        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2629
    2630        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2631
    2632        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2633        if first is None:
    2634            first = ""
    2635        else:
    2636            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2637
    2638        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2639            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2640
    2641        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2642        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2643
    2644    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2645        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2646        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2647
    2648    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2650        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2651        end = (
    2652            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2653            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2654        )
    2655        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2656
    2657    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2659        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2660        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2661
    2662    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2664        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2665        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2666        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2667
    2668    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2669        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2670    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2671        return apply_index_offset(
    2672            expression.this,
    2673            expression.expressions,
    2674            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2675        )
    2676
    2677    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2678        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2679        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2681
    2682    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2683        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2684
    2685    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2687        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2688            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2689                this = self.wrap(this)
    2690            return f"ANY{this}"
    2691        return f"ANY {this}"
    2692
    2693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2695
    2696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2699
    2700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2703
    2704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2705
    2706        if default:
    2707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2708
    2709        statements.append("END")
    2710
    2711        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2713
    2714        return " ".join(statements)
    2715
    2716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2720
    2721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2722        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2725
    2726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2730
    2731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2733
    2734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2735            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2737            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2738        else:
    2739            func_name = "TRIM"
    2740
    2741        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
    2742
    2743    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2744        args = expression.expressions
    2745        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2746            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2747
    2748        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2749            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2750
    2751        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2752            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2753
    2754        return args
    2755
    2756    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2757        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2758
    2759        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2760        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2761            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2762
    2763        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2764
    2765    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2766        return self.func(
    2767            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2768        )
    2769
    2770    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2771        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2772        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2773
    2774    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2775        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2776        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2777        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2778        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2779        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2780        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2781        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2782        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2783
    2784    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2788        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2789
    2790    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2791        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2792
    2793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2797
    2798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2800
    2801    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2802        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2803
    2804        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2805            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2806
    2807        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2808            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2809
    2810        return path
    2811
    2812    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2813        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2814            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2815            if not callable(transform):
    2816                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2817                return ""
    2818
    2819            return transform(self, expression)
    2820
    2821        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2822            return str(expression)
    2823
    2824        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2825            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2826            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2827        else:
    2828            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2829            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2830
    2831        return escaped
    2832
    2833    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2835
    2836    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2839
    2840        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2841        if unique_keys is not None:
    2842            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2843        else:
    2844            unique_keys = ""
    2845
    2846        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2847        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2848        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2849        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2850
    2851        return self.func(
    2852            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2853            *expression.expressions,
    2854            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2855        )
    2856
    2857    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2858        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2859
    2860    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2861        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2862        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2863        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2864        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2865        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2866        return self.func(
    2867            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2868        )
    2869
    2870    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2875        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2876        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2877        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2878        return self.func(
    2879            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2880            this,
    2881            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2882        )
    2883
    2884    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2885        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2886        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2887        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2888
    2889        if nested_schema:
    2890            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2891
    2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2894        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2895        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2896
    2897    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2898        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2899
    2900    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2902        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2903        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2904        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2905        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2906        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2907        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2908        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2909        return self.func(
    2910            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2911        )
    2912
    2913    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2916        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2917        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2918        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2919        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2920
    2921    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2924        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2925        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2926        with_ = (
    2927            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2928            if expressions
    2929            else ""
    2930        )
    2931        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2932
    2933    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2934        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2935        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2936        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2937        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2938
    2939        if query:
    2940            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2941        elif unnest:
    2942            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2943        elif field:
    2944            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2945        else:
    2946            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2947
    2948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2949
    2950    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2951        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2952
    2953    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2954        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2955        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2956            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2957        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2958
    2959        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2960            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2961            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2962
    2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2964        if this:
    2965            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2966            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2967
    2968        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2969
    2970    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2971        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2972
    2973    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2976        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2979        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2980
    2981    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2982        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    2983        parent = expression.parent
    2984        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    2985        return self.func(
    2986            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    2987        )
    2988
    2989    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2990        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2991        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2992
    2993    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2994        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2995        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2996        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2997        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2998
    2999    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3000        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3001
    3002    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3004        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    3006
    3007    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3008        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3009
    3010        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3011        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3012
    3013        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3014            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3015        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3016            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3017
    3018        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    3019
    3020    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3022
    3023    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3025        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3026        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    3027
    3028    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3030        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3031        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    3032
    3033    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3035        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3036        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    3037
    3038    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3039        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    3040
    3041    def and_sql(
    3042        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3043    ) -> str:
    3044        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
    3045
    3046    def or_sql(
    3047        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3048    ) -> str:
    3049        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
    3050
    3051    def xor_sql(
    3052        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3053    ) -> str:
    3054        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
    3055
    3056    def connector_sql(
    3057        self,
    3058        expression: exp.Connector,
    3059        op: str,
    3060        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3061    ) -> str:
    3062        if stack is not None:
    3063            if expression.expressions:
    3064                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3065            else:
    3066                stack.append(expression.right)
    3067                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3068                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3069                        if comment:
    3070                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3071                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3072            return op
    3073
    3074        stack = [expression]
    3075        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3076        ops = set()
    3077
    3078        while stack:
    3079            node = stack.pop()
    3080            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3081                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3082            else:
    3083                sql = self.sql(node)
    3084                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3085                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3086                else:
    3087                    sqls.append(sql)
    3088
    3089        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3090        return sep.join(sqls)
    3091
    3092    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    3094
    3095    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3096        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    3097
    3098    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3099        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3100
    3101    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3102        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    3103
    3104    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3105        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    3106
    3107    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3108        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    3109
    3110    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3111        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3112        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3113        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3114        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3115        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3116        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3117        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
    3118
    3119    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3120        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3121        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    3122
    3123    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3124        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3125            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    3127
    3128    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    3130
    3131    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3133        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3134        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3135        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3137        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    3138
    3139    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3141        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3142        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3143        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3144        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3145        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3146        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3147        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3148        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    3149
    3150    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3151        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3152        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3153        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3154        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3155
    3156        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3157            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3158
    3159        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    3160
    3161    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3162        return "BEGIN"
    3163
    3164    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3165        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3166        if chain is not None:
    3167            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3168
    3169        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    3170
    3171    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3172        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3173        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3174        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    3175
    3176    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3178
    3179        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3180        if dtype:
    3181            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3182            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3183            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3184            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3186
    3187        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3188        if default:
    3189            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3190
    3191        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3192        if comment:
    3193            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3194
    3195        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3196        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3197
    3198        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3200
    3201        if allow_null is not None:
    3202            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3204
    3205        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    3206
    3207    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3209        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3210            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3211        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
    3212
    3213    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3214        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3218        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
    3219
    3220    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3221        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3222            # Remove db from tables
    3223            expression = expression.transform(
    3224                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3225            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3227        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    3228
    3229    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3230        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3231        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3232        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3233        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    3234
    3235    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3236        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3237        return f"SET {exprs}"
    3238
    3239    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3240        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3241
    3242        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3243            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3244        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3249            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3250        else:
    3251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3252
    3253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3256        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3257        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3258        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3260        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3261
    3262        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
    3263
    3264    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3265        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3266            return self.expressions(
    3267                expression,
    3268                key="actions",
    3269                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3270                skip_first=True,
    3271            )
    3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    3273
    3274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    3278
    3279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3280        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3281
    3282    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3283        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3284
    3285        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3286            case = exp.case()
    3287            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3288                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3289            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3290
    3291        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3292
    3293        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3294        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3295        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    3296
    3297    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3298        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    3299
    3300    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3301        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    3302
    3303    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3304        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3305        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3306        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3307        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
    3308
    3309    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3310        return self.sql(
    3311            exp.Cast(
    3312                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3313                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3314            )
    3315        )
    3316
    3317    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3319            return self.func(
    3320                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3321            )
    3322        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    3323
    3324    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3325        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3326
    3327        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3328            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3329
    3330        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3331            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3332                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3333
    3334        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3335            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3336                return self.sql(
    3337                    exp.cast(
    3338                        l / r,
    3339                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3340                    )
    3341                )
    3342
    3343        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    3344
    3345    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3346        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    3347
    3348    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3349        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    3350
    3351    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3353
    3354    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3355        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    3356
    3357    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3358        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    3359
    3360    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3361        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    3362
    3363    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3364        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    3365
    3366    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3367        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    3368
    3369    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3370        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    3371
    3372    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3373        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    3374
    3375    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3376        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    3377
    3378    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3379        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3380            return self.sql(
    3381                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3382            )
    3383        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    3384
    3385    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3386        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    3387
    3388    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3389        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    3390
    3391    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3392        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    3393
    3394    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3395        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    3396
    3397    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3398        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    3399
    3400    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3401        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    3402
    3403    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3404        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    3405
    3406    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3407        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    3408
    3409    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3410        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    3411
    3412    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3413        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    3414
    3415    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3416        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    3417
    3418    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3419        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    3420
    3421    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3422        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    3423
    3424    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3425        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3426            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3428
    3429        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
    3430
    3431    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3432        this = expression.this
    3433        expr = expression.expression
    3434
    3435        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3436            this, expr = expr, this
    3437        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3438            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3439                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3440
    3441            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3442
    3443        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3444
    3445    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3447        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3449        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3450        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3451
    3452    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3453        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3454        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3455        binary_type = type(expression)
    3456
    3457        while stack:
    3458            node = stack.pop()
    3459
    3460            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3461                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3462                if op_func:
    3463                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3464
    3465                stack.append(node.right)
    3466                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3467                stack.append(node.left)
    3468            else:
    3469                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3470
    3471        return "".join(sqls)
    3472
    3473    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3474        args = []
    3475
    3476        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3477            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3478
    3479            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3480                for value in arg_value:
    3481                    args.append(value)
    3482            elif arg_value is not None:
    3483                args.append(arg_value)
    3484
    3485        if self.normalize_functions:
    3486            name = expression.sql_name()
    3487        else:
    3488            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3489
    3490        return self.func(name, *args)
    3491
    3492    def func(
    3493        self,
    3494        name: str,
    3495        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3496        prefix: str = "(",
    3497        suffix: str = ")",
    3498        normalize: bool = True,
    3499    ) -> str:
    3500        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3501        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3502
    3503    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3504        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3505            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3506        )
    3507        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3508            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3509        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3510
    3511    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3512        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
    3513
    3514    def format_time(
    3515        self,
    3516        expression: exp.Expression,
    3517        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3518        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3519    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3520        return format_time(
    3521            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3522            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3523            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3524        )
    3525
    3526    def expressions(
    3527        self,
    3528        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3529        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3530        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3531        flat: bool = False,
    3532        indent: bool = True,
    3533        skip_first: bool = False,
    3534        skip_last: bool = False,
    3535        sep: str = ", ",
    3536        prefix: str = "",
    3537        dynamic: bool = False,
    3538        new_line: bool = False,
    3539    ) -> str:
    3540        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3541
    3542        if not expressions:
    3543            return ""
    3544
    3545        if flat:
    3546            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3547
    3548        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3549        result_sqls = []
    3550
    3551        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3552            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3553            if not sql:
    3554                continue
    3555
    3556            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3557
    3558            if self.pretty:
    3559                if self.leading_comma:
    3560                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3561                else:
    3562                    result_sqls.append(
    3563                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3564                    )
    3565            else:
    3566                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3567
    3568        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3569            if new_line:
    3570                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3571                result_sqls.append("")
    3572            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3573        else:
    3574            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3575
    3576        return (
    3577            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3578            if indent
    3579            else result_sql
    3580        )
    3581
    3582    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3583        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3584        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3585        if flat:
    3586            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3587        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3588
    3589    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3591        if not property_name:
    3592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3593        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3594
    3595    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3596        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3597
    3598    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3599        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3600
    3601    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3603        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3604        expressions = (
    3605            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3606        )
    3607        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3608
    3609    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3611        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3612        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3613
    3614    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3615        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3616
    3617    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3618        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3619        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3620        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3621        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3622
    3623        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3624        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3625            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3626            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3627            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3628            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3629        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3630            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3631                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3632            else:
    3633                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3634        else:
    3635            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3636        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3637
    3638    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3639        table = expression.this
    3640        table_alias = ""
    3641
    3642        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3643        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3644            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3645            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3646
    3647        this = self.sql(table)
    3648        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3649        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3652        if returning:
    3653            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3654
    3655        sep = self.sep()
    3656
    3657        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3658            expression,
    3659            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3660        )
    3661
    3662    @unsupported_args("format")
    3663    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3664        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
    3665
    3666    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3667        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3668            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3669            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3670
    3671        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3672        if not fmt:
    3673            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3674            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3675
    3676        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
    3677
    3678    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3681        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3682        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3683        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3684
    3685    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3687        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3688        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3689        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3690
    3691    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3693
    3694    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3695        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    3696
    3697    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    3698    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3700        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3701        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3703        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3704        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3705        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
    3706
    3707    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3708        return ""
    3709
    3710    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3712        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3713        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3714        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3715        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3716
    3717    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3719        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3720
    3721        if having:
    3722            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3723
    3724        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3725
    3726    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3727        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3728        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3729        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3730        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3731        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3732        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3733        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3734        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3735        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3736        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3737        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3738        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3739        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3740
    3741    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3742        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3743        if key_block_size:
    3744            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3745
    3746        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3747        if using:
    3748            return f"USING {using}"
    3749
    3750        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3751        if parser:
    3752            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3753
    3754        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3755        if comment:
    3756            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3757
    3758        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3759        if visible is not None:
    3760            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3761
    3762        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3763        if engine_attr:
    3764            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3765
    3766        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3767        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3768            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3769
    3770        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3771        return ""
    3772
    3773    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3774        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3775        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
    3776
    3777    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3779        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3782        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3785        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3788        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
    3789
    3790    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3791        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3792            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3793
    3794        case = exp.Case().when(
    3795            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3796            expression.args["true"],
    3797            copy=False,
    3798        )
    3799        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3800        if else_cond:
    3801            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3802
    3803        return self.sql(case)
    3804
    3805    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3807        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3808        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3809        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3810        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3811        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3812
    3813    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3815
    3816    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3818
    3819    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3820        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3821        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3822        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3823        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3824        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3825        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3826
    3827    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3830        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3831
    3832    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3834        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3835        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3836
    3837    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3838        arg = expression.this
    3839        if not arg.type:
    3840            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3841
    3842            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3843
    3844        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3845            return self.sql(arg)
    3846
    3847        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3848        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
    3849
    3850    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3851        this = expression.this
    3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3853            return self.sql(this)
    3854
    3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
    3856
    3857    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3858        this = expression.this
    3859        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3860            return self.sql(this)
    3861
    3862        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
    3863
    3864    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3865        this = expression.this
    3866        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3867
    3868        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3869            return self.sql(
    3870                exp.cast(
    3871                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3872                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3873                )
    3874            )
    3875
    3876        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3877            return self.sql(this)
    3878
    3879        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
    3880
    3881    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3882        return self.sql(
    3883            exp.func(
    3884                "DATEDIFF",
    3885                expression.this,
    3886                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3887                "day",
    3888            )
    3889        )
    3890
    3891    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3892        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3894
    3895        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3896        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3897            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3898
    3899        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3900
    3901    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3902        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3903
    3904        return self.func(
    3905            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3906        )
    3907
    3908    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3909        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3910            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3911            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3912            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3913            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3914
    3915        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3916
    3917        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3918        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3919            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3920
    3921        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3922
    3923    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3924        expression.set(
    3925            "expressions",
    3926            [
    3927                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3928                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3929                else e
    3930                for e in expression.expressions
    3931            ],
    3932        )
    3933
    3934        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3935
    3936    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3937        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3938        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3939
    3940        return f"{low} TO {high}"
    3941
    3942    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3943        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3944        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3945
    3946        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3947
    3948        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3949        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3950
    3951        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3952        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3953
    3954        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3955        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3956
    3957        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3958        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3959
    3960        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
    3961
    3962    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    3963    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    3964    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3965        to = expression.this
    3966        value = expression.expression
    3967        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3968        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3969        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3970
    3971        if not to or not value:
    3972            return ""
    3973
    3974        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3975        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3976            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3977
    3978        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3979        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3980
    3981        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3982        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3983            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3984
    3985            style_value = style.name
    3986            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3987            if not converted_style:
    3988                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3989
    3990            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3991
    3992            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3993                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3994            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3995                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3996            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3997                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3998            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3999                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4000
    4001        if not transformed:
    4002            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4003
    4004        return self.sql(transformed)
    4005
    4006    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    4007        this = expression.this
    4008        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    4009            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4010            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    4011
    4012        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    4013            return f".{this}"
    4014
    4015        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    4016        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    4017
    4018    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    4019        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    4020        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    4021
    4022    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    4023        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    4024            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    4025
    4026            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    4027
    4028        return expression
    4029
    4030    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    4031        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
    4032            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
    4033            mods = sorted(
    4034                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
    4035                key=lambda x: 0
    4036                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
    4037                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
    4038            )
    4039
    4040            if mods:
    4041                mod = mods[0]
    4042                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
    4043                this.meta["inline"] = True
    4044                mod.this.replace(this)
    4045                return self.sql(expression.this)
    4046
    4047            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    4048
    4049            if agg_func:
    4050                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
    4051
    4052        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    4053
    4054    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
    4055        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
    4056        if self.pretty:
    4057            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    4058        return string
    4059
    4060    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4061        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4062
    4063        if expression.expressions:
    4064            upper = option.upper()
    4065
    4066            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4067            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4068
    4069            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4070            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4071            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4072            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4073
    4074        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4075
    4076        if not value:
    4077            return option
    4078
    4079        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4080
    4081        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
    4082
    4083    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4084        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4085        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4086            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4087            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4088            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4089        else:
    4090            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4091            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4092            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4093
    4094        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4095        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4096
    4097        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4098        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4099
    4100        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4101        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4102
    4103        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4104        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4105
    4106        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
    4107
    4108    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4110        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4111
    4112        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4113        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4114        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4115        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4116
    4117        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4118        params = self.expressions(
    4119            expression,
    4120            key="params",
    4121            sep=sep,
    4122            new_line=True,
    4123            skip_last=True,
    4124            skip_first=True,
    4125            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4126        )
    4127
    4128        if params:
    4129            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4130                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4131            elif not self.pretty:
    4132                params = f" {params}"
    4133
    4134        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
    4135
    4136    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4137        return ""
    4138
    4139    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4140        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4141        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4142        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4143        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4144        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4145
    4146        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4147            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4148
    4149        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
    4150
    4151    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4152        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4153    ) -> str:
    4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4155        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4156        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4157        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
    4158
    4159    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4161        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4162        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
    4163
    4164    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4165        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
    4166
    4167    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4169        expr = expression.expression
    4170
    4171        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4172            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4173            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4174        else:
    4175            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4176
    4177        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
    4178
    4179    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4180        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4181            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4182
    4183        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
    4184
    4185    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4186        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4187        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4188
    4189        if lower and upper:
    4190            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4191        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
    4192
    4193    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4194        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4195        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4196        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4197        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4198        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4199        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4200
    4201        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
    4202
    4203    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4204        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4205
    4206        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4207        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4208            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4209
    4210        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
    4211
    4212    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4213        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4214        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
    4215
    4216    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4217        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4218
    4219        parent = expression.parent
    4220        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4221            parent = parent.parent
    4222
    4223        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4224            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4225
    4226        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4227            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4228
    4229        return self.sql(generate_series)
    4230
    4231    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4232        exprs = expression.expressions
    4233        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4234            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4235        else:
    4236            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4237
    4238        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
    4239
    4240    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4241        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4242            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4243
    4244        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4245        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4246        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4247
    4248        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4249            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4250                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4251            )
    4252
    4253        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4254
    4255        return self.sql(expr)
    4256
    4257    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4259        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4260
    4261        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4262
    4263        if _with is None:
    4264            with_sql = ""
    4265        elif not _with:
    4266            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4267        else:
    4268            with_sql = " WITH"
    4269
    4270        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4271
    4272        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
    4273
    4274    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4275        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4276            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4277
    4278        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4279        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4280        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4281
    4282        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4283        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4284
    4285        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
    4286
    4287    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4288        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4289        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4290        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4291        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4292        return f"{condition}{insert}"
    4293
    4294    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4296        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4297        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4298        return res
    4299
    4300    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4301        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4302        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4303        empty = (
    4304            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4305            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4306            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4307        )
    4308
    4309        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4310        error = (
    4311            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4312            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4313            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4314        )
    4315
    4316        if error and empty:
    4317            error = (
    4318                f"{empty} {error}"
    4319                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4320                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4321            )
    4322            empty = ""
    4323
    4324        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4325
    4326        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
    4327
    4328    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4330        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4331
    4332        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4333        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4334
    4335        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4336        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4337
    4338        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4339
    4340        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
    4341
    4342    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4343        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4344
    4345        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4346            parent = expression.parent
    4347            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4348                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4349                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4350            else:
    4351                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4352                this = expression.this
    4353                this_sql = (
    4354                    self.expressions(this)
    4355                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4356                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4357                )
    4358                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4359
    4360        return array_agg
    4361
    4362    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4364        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4365
    4366        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
    4367
    4368    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4369        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4370
    4371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4373
    4374        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4375        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4376
    4377        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4378
    4379        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4380
    4381        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
    4382
    4383    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4385        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4386        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4387
    4388        return f"{this}{columns}"
    4389
    4390    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4392
    4393        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4394        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4395
    4396        return f"{kind}{this}"
    4397
    4398    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4399        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4400        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4401            func = f"*{func}"
    4402
    4403        return func
    4404
    4405    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4408        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4409        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4410        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4411
    4412        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
- indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None) View Source

    639    def __init__(
    640        self,
    641        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    642        identify: str | bool = False,
    643        normalize: bool = False,
    644        pad: int = 2,
    645        indent: int = 2,
    646        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    647        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    648        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    649        leading_comma: bool = False,
    650        max_text_width: int = 80,
    651        comments: bool = True,
    652        dialect: DialectType = None,
    653    ):
    654        import sqlglot
    655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    656
    657        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    658        self.identify = identify
    659        self.normalize = normalize
    660        self.pad = pad
    661        self._indent = indent
    662        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    663        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    664        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    665        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    666        self.comments = comments
    667        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    668
    669        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    670        self.normalize_functions = (
    671            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    672        )
    673
    674        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    675        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    677        )
    678        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
    679
    680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
    681
    682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
    683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>}
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Command'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    686        """
    687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    688
    689        Args:
    690            expression: The syntax tree.
    691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    692                it is safer to copy.
    693
    694        Returns:
    695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    696        """
    697        if copy:
    698            expression = expression.copy()
    699
    700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    701
    702        self.unsupported_messages = []
    703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    704
    705        if self.pretty:
    706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    707
    708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    709            return sql
    710
    711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    713                logger.warning(msg)
    714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    716
    717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    721        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    722
    723        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    724            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    725
    726            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    727
    728        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    741    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    742        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    743            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    744        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    746    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    747        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    749    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    750        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    752    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    753        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    754        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    755        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    757    def maybe_comment(
    758        self,
    759        sql: str,
    760        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    761        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    762        separated: bool = False,
    763    ) -> str:
    764        comments = (
    765            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    766            if self.comments
    767            else None
    768        )
    769
    770        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    771            return sql
    772
    773        comments_sql = " ".join(
    774            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    775        )
    776
    777        if not comments_sql:
    778            return sql
    779
    780        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
    781
    782        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    783            return (
    784                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    785                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
    786                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    787            )
    788
    789        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    791    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    792        this_sql = (
    793            self.sql(expression)
    794            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
    795            else self.sql(expression, "this")
    796        )
    797        if not this_sql:
    798            return "()"
    799
    800        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
    801        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    803    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    804        original = self.identify
    805        self.identify = False
    806        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    807        self.identify = original
    808        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    810    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    811        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    812            return name.upper()
    813        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    814            return name.lower()
    815        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    817    def indent(
    818        self,
    819        sql: str,
    820        level: int = 0,
    821        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    822        skip_first: bool = False,
    823        skip_last: bool = False,
    824    ) -> str:
    825        if not self.pretty or not sql:
    826            return sql
    827
    828        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    829        lines = sql.split("\n")
    830
    831        return "\n".join(
    832            (
    833                line
    834                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    835                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    836            )
    837            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    838        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    840    def sql(
    841        self,
    842        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    843        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    844        comment: bool = True,
    845    ) -> str:
    846        if not expression:
    847            return ""
    848
    849        if isinstance(expression, str):
    850            return expression
    851
    852        if key:
    853            value = expression.args.get(key)
    854            if value:
    855                return self.sql(value)
    856            return ""
    857
    858        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    859
    860        if callable(transform):
    861            sql = transform(self, expression)
    862        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    863            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    864
    865            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    866                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    867            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    868                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    869            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    870                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    871            else:
    872                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    873        else:
    874            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    875
    876        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str: View Source

    878    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    880        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    881        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str: View Source

    883    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    884        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    885        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    886        options = expression.args.get("options")
    887        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    888        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    889        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    890        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str: View Source

    893    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    894        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    895            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    896        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    897        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    899    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    900        return ".".join(
    901            self.sql(part)
    902            for part in (
    903                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    904                expression.args.get("db"),
    905                expression.args.get("table"),
    906                expression.args.get("this"),
    907            )
    908            if part
    909        )

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    911    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    912        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    913
    914        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
    915            join_mark = ""
    916            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    917
    918        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str: View Source

    920    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    922        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    923        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    924        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    926    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    927        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    928        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    929        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    930        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    931        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    932        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    933        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    934        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    935
    936        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    937            kind = ""
    938
    939        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    941    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    943        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    944        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    946    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    948        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    949            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    950        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    951            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    952        else:
    953            persisted = ""
    954        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    956    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    957        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    959    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    960        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    961            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    962        else:
    963            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    964
    965        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    967    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    968        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    969    ) -> str:
    970        this = ""
    971        if expression.this is not None:
    972            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    973            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    974
    975        start = expression.args.get("start")
    976        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    977        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    978        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    979        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    980        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    981        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    982        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    983        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    984        cycle_sql = ""
    985
    986        if cycle is not None:
    987            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    988            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    989
    990        sequence_opts = ""
    991        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    992            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    993            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    994
    995        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    996        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    997
    998        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1000    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    1001        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    1002    ) -> str:
    1003        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    1004        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    1005        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1007    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    1008        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    1009    ) -> str:
    1010        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1012    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1013        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1015    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1016        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1018    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1019        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1020        if desc is not None:
    1021            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    1022        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    1024    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    1025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1026        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1027        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    1028        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    1029        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
    1030        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1031        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
    1032        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    1034    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    1035        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str: View Source

    1037    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    1038        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1039        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1040        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    1041        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    1042
    1043        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    1044
    1045        properties_sql = ""
    1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    1047            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    1048        ):
    1049            properties_sql = self.sql(
    1050                exp.Properties(
    1051                    expressions=[
    1052                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    1053                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    1054                    ]
    1055                )
    1056            )
    1057
    1058            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
    1059                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
    1060            elif not self.pretty:
    1061                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
    1062                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
    1063
    1064        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    1065        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    1066
    1067        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1068        if expression_sql:
    1069            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    1070
    1071            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    1072                postalias_props_sql = ""
    1073                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    1074                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    1075                        exp.Properties(
    1076                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    1077                        ),
    1078                        wrapped=False,
    1079                    )
    1080                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
    1081                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    1082
    1083        postindex_props_sql = ""
    1084        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    1085            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    1086                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    1087                wrapped=False,
    1088                prefix=" ",
    1089            )
    1090
    1091        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    1092        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    1093        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    1094
    1095        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    1096        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
    1097        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1098
    1099        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
    1100        if clustered is None:
    1101            clustered_sql = ""
    1102        elif clustered:
    1103            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1104        else:
    1105            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
    1106
    1107        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    1108        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    1109            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    1110                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    1111                sep=" ",
    1112                prefix=" ",
    1113                wrapped=False,
    1114            )
    1115
    1116        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    1117
    1118        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    1119        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    1120            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    1121                exp.Properties(
    1122                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    1123                ),
    1124                sep=" ",
    1125                prefix=" ",
    1126                wrapped=False,
    1127            )
    1128
    1129        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1130        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1131        no_schema_binding = (
    1132            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    1133        )
    1134
    1135        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    1136        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    1137
    1138        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    1139        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str: View Source

    1141    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
    1142        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1143        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    1144        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
    1145        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    1146        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
    1147        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    1148        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
    1149        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    1150        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
    1151        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
    1152
    1153        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
    1154        if cache is None:
    1155            cache_str = ""
    1156        elif cache is True:
    1157            cache_str = " CACHE"
    1158        else:
    1159            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
    1160
    1161        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    1162        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1163
    1164        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str: View Source

    1166    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1168        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    1169        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    1170        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str: View Source

    1172    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    1173        style = expression.args.get("style")
    1174        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
    1175        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1176        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1177        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str: View Source

    1179    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    1180        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    1181        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    1183    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    1184        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    1185        if with_:
    1186            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    1187        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str: View Source

    1189    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    1190        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1191        recursive = (
    1192            "RECURSIVE "
    1193            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    1194            else ""
    1195        )
    1196
    1197        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str: View Source

    1199    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    1200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1201
    1202        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
    1203        if materialized is False:
    1204            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
    1205        elif materialized:
    1206            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
    1207
    1208        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str: View Source

    1210    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    1211        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1212        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1213        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1214
    1215        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    1216            columns = ""
    1217            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    1218
    1219        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    1220            alias = self._next_name()
    1221
    1222        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str: View Source

    1224    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
    1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1226        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1227            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1228        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str: View Source

    1230    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1232        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1233            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1234        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str: View Source

    1236    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1238        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1239            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1240        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str: View Source

    1242    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1244        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1245
    1246        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1247            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
    1248            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
    1249        else:
    1250            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
    1251            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    1252
    1253        if escape:
    1254            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1255            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
    1256        else:
    1257            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1258            escape_sql = ""
    1259
    1260        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
    1261            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
    1262
    1263        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str: View Source

    1265    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1266        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
    1267        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str: View Source

    1269    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1271        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1272        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1273        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str: View Source

    1275    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1276        nested = ""
    1277        values = ""
    1278        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1279
    1280        type_value = expression.this
    1281        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1282            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1283        else:
    1284            type_sql = (
    1285                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1286                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1287                else type_value
    1288            )
    1289
    1290        if interior:
    1291            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1292                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1293                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1294                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1295                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1296                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1297            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1298                nested = f" {interior}"
    1299            else:
    1300                nested = f"({interior})"
    1301
    1302        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1303        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1304            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1305            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1306        ):
    1307            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1308
    1309        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str: View Source

    1311    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1312        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1313        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1314        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1315        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str: View Source

    1317    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1319        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1320        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1321        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1322        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1323        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
    1324        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1326        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1327        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1328        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1329        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1330            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1331        else:
    1332            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
    1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str: View Source

    1335    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1337        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1338        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    1339        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1340        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
    1341        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1342        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
    1343        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    1344        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    1345        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1346        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1347        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1348        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1349        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1350        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str: View Source

    1352    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1353        op_type = type(expression)
    1354        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
    1355
    1356        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
    1357        if (
    1358            distinct is False
    1359            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
    1360            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
    1361        ):
    1362            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
    1363
    1364        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
    1365
    1366        if distinct is None:
    1367            distinct = default_distinct
    1368            if distinct is None:
    1369                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
    1370
    1371        if distinct is default_distinct:
    1372            kind = ""
    1373        else:
    1374            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
    1375
    1376        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1377        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"

def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str: View Source

    1379    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
    1380        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
    1381            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    1382            order = expression.args.get("order")
    1383
    1384            if limit or order:
    1385                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
    1386                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
    1387                )
    1388
    1389                if limit:
    1390                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
    1391                if order:
    1392                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
    1393                return self.sql(select)
    1394
    1395        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    1396        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    1397
    1398        while stack:
    1399            node = stack.pop()
    1400
    1401            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
    1402                stack.append(node.expression)
    1403                stack.append(
    1404                    self.maybe_comment(
    1405                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
    1406                    )
    1407                )
    1408                stack.append(node.this)
    1409            else:
    1410                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    1411
    1412        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
    1413        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
    1414        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str: View Source

    1416    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1417        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1418        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1419        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
    1420        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1421        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1422            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1423        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1424        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str: View Source

    1426    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1427        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1428            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1429            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1430            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1431
    1432        agg = expression.this
    1433        agg_arg = agg.this
    1434        cond = expression.expression.this
    1435        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1436        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str: View Source

    1438    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1439        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1440            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1441            return ""
    1442
    1443        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str: View Source

    1445    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
    1446        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1447        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1448        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1449        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1450        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1451        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1452        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1453        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1454        if include:
    1455            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1456        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
    1457        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
    1458        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
    1459        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
    1460        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1461        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    1462
    1463        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str: View Source

    1465    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1466        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1467        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1468        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1469        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1470        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1471        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1472        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1473
    1474        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1475
    1476        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
    1477        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str: View Source

    1479    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1480        text = expression.name
    1481        lower = text.lower()
    1482        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1483        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1484        if (
    1485            expression.quoted
    1486            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1487            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1488            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1489        ):
    1490            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
    1491        return text

def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str: View Source

    1493    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
    1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1495        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1497
    1498        return text

def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str: View Source

    1500    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
    1501        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1502        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
    1503            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
    1504        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str: View Source

    1506    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1507        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1508        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1509        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1510        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1511        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1513    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1514        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1515        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str: View Source

    1517    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1518        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1520    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1521        root_properties = []
    1522        with_properties = []
    1523
    1524        for p in expression.expressions:
    1525            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1526            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1527                with_properties.append(p)
    1528            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1529                root_properties.append(p)
    1530
    1531        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
    1532        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1533
    1534        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
    1535            with_props = " " + with_props
    1536
    1537        return root_props + with_props

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1539    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1540        if properties.expressions:
    1541            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1542        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1544    def properties(
    1545        self,
    1546        properties: exp.Properties,
    1547        prefix: str = "",
    1548        sep: str = ", ",
    1549        suffix: str = "",
    1550        wrapped: bool = True,
    1551    ) -> str:
    1552        if properties.expressions:
    1553            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1554            if expressions:
    1555                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1556                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1557        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1559    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1560        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1562    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1563        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1564        for p in properties.expressions:
    1565            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1566            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1567                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1568            else:
    1569                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1570
    1571        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1573    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1574        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1575            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1576        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    1578    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1579        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1580        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1581            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1582
    1583        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1584        if not property_name:
    1585            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1586
    1587        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1589    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1590        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1591            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1592            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1593
    1594            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1595            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1596                like = f"({like})"
    1597
    1598            return like
    1599
    1600        if expression.expressions:
    1601            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1602
    1603        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1604        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str: View Source

    1606    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1607        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1608        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1609        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str: View Source

    1611    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1612        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1613        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1614        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1615        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1616        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1617        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1618        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str: View Source

    1620    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1621        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1622        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1623        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str: View Source

    1625    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1626        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1627            property = "DEFAULT"
    1628        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1629            property = "ON"
    1630        else:
    1631            property = "OFF"
    1632        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str: View Source

    1634    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1635        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1636            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1637        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1638            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1639
    1640        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1641        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1643    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1644        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1645        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1646        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1647        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1648            if default:
    1649                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1650            elif minimum:
    1651                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1652            else:
    1653                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1654            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1655        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1656        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1657        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str: View Source

    1659    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1660        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1661        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1662        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1663        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1664        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1665
    1666        if autotemp is not None:
    1667            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1668        elif always:
    1669            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1670        elif default:
    1671            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1672        elif manual:
    1673            prop = "MANUAL"
    1674        elif never:
    1675            prop = "NEVER"
    1676        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1678    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1679        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1680        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1681        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1682        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1683        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1684        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
    1685        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str: View Source

    1687    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1688        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1689            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1690        if expression.this:
    1691            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1692            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1693            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1694
    1695        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1696        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1697        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str: View Source

    1699    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1701
    1702        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1703        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1704            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1705        else:
    1706            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1707
    1708        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1710    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1711        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1712        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1713        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1714        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1715        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1716        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1717        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str: View Source

    1719    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1720        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1721        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1722        statistics_sql = ""
    1723        if statistics is not None:
    1724            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1725        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str: View Source

    1727    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1728        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1729        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
    1730        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
    1731        data_consistency = (
    1732            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
    1733        )
    1734        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    1735        retention_period = (
    1736            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    1737        )
    1738
    1739        if this:
    1740            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
    1741        else:
    1742            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    1743
    1744        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
    1745
    1746        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str: View Source

    1748    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1749        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    1750        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1751
    1752        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1753            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1754        else:
    1755            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1756
    1757        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
    1758        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
    1759        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1760        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1761        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1762        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
    1763        if is_function:
    1764            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
    1765        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1766
    1767        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1768        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1769        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1770        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1771        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1772        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
    1773        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1774        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1775
    1776        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1777            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
    1778        else:
    1779            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
    1780
    1781        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1782        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1783        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
    1784        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
    1785
    1786        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
    1787        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
    1788
    1789        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
    1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str: View Source

    1792    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str: View Source

    1795    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1796        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1797        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1800        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str: View Source

    1802    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1803        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str: View Source

    1805    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1806        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str: View Source

    1808    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1809        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1810
    1811        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1812        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
    1813
    1814        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
    1815        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
    1816        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    1817
    1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1819        if expressions:
    1820            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1821            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1822
    1823        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str: View Source

    1825    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1826        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str: View Source

    1828    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1829        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
    1830        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1831        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
    1832        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1833        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
    1834        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1835        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
    1836        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1837        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
    1838        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1839        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    1840        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1841        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1843    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1844        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1846    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1847        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1848        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1849        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1850        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str: View Source

    1852    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1854        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1855        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1856        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str: View Source

    1858    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
    1859        return ".".join(
    1860            self.sql(part)
    1861            for part in (
    1862                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1863                expression.args.get("db"),
    1864                expression.args.get("this"),
    1865            )
    1866            if part is not None
    1867        )

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1869    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1870        table = self.table_parts(expression)
    1871        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    1872        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1873        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1874        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1875        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1877        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1878
    1879        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    1880        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
    1881            sample_pre_alias = sample
    1882            sample_post_alias = ""
    1883        else:
    1884            sample_pre_alias = ""
    1885            sample_post_alias = sample
    1886
    1887        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1888        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1889        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    1890        joins = self.indent(
    1891            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
    1892        )
    1893        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1894
    1895        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1896        if file_format:
    1897            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1898            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1899            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1900
    1901        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1902        if ordinality:
    1903            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1904            alias = ""
    1905
    1906        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1907        if when:
    1908            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1909
    1910        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
    1911        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
    1912
    1913        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
    1914        if rows_from:
    1915            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
    1916
    1917        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1919    def tablesample_sql(
    1920        self,
    1921        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1922        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1923    ) -> str:
    1924        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1925        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1926        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1927        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1928        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1929        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1930        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1931        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1932        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1933
    1934        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1935        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1936            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1937
    1938        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1939        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1940            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1941
    1942        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1943        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1944            expr = f"({expr})"
    1945
    1946        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str: View Source

    1948    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1950
    1951        if expression.this:
    1952            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1953            if not expressions:
    1954                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1955
    1956            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1957            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1958            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1959            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1960            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1961
    1962        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1963        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1964        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
    1965
    1966        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1967
    1968        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1969        if include_nulls is not None:
    1970            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1971        else:
    1972            nulls = ""
    1973
    1974        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
    1975        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
    1976        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str: View Source

    1978    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1979        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1980        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1981        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1982        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str: View Source

    1984    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1985        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str: View Source

    1987    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1989        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1990        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1991        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1992        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1993        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1994        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1995        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1996            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1997        else:
    1998            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1999        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    2000        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2002    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
    2003        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
    2004
    2005        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    2006        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    2007            args = self.expressions(expression)
    2008            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2009            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    2010            values = (
    2011                f"({values})"
    2012                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
    2013                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
    2014                else values
    2015            )
    2016            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    2017
    2018        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    2019        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    2020        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    2021
    2022        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
    2023
    2024        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    2025            row = tup.expressions
    2026
    2027            if i == 0 and column_names:
    2028                row = [
    2029                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    2030                ]
    2031
    2032            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    2033
    2034        if self.pretty:
    2035            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    2036            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    2037            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    2038            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    2039            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
    2040
    2041        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    2042        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    2043        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str: View Source

    2045    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    2046        return self.sql(expression, "this")

@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str: View Source

    2048    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    2049    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    2050        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    2051        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    2052        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str: View Source

    2054    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    2055        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str: View Source

    2057    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
    2058        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2059        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"

def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str: View Source

    2061    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
    2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2063        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"

def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str: View Source

    2065    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
    2066        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
    2067        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str: View Source

    2069    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    2070        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
    2071        if group_by_all is True:
    2072            modifier = " ALL"
    2073        elif group_by_all is False:
    2074            modifier = " DISTINCT"
    2075        else:
    2076            modifier = ""
    2077
    2078        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
    2079
    2080        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
    2081        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
    2082        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
    2083
    2084        groupings = csv(
    2085            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
    2086            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
    2087            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
    2088            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    2089            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    2090        )
    2091
    2092        if (
    2093            expression.expressions
    2094            and groupings
    2095            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
    2096        ):
    2097            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    2098
    2099        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str: View Source

    2101    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    2102        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2103        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str: View Source

    2105    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    2106        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    2107        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    2108        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
    2109        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    2110        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
    2111        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str: View Source

    2113    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    2114        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str: View Source

    2116    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    2117        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    2118            side = None
    2119        else:
    2120            side = expression.side
    2121
    2122        op_sql = " ".join(
    2123            op
    2124            for op in (
    2125                expression.method,
    2126                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    2127                side,
    2128                expression.kind,
    2129                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    2130            )
    2131            if op
    2132        )
    2133        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
    2134        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
    2135        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2136        using = expression.args.get("using")
    2137
    2138        if not on_sql and using:
    2139            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    2140
    2141        this = expression.this
    2142        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    2143
    2144        if on_sql:
    2145            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    2146            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    2147            if using:
    2148                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    2149            else:
    2150                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    2151        elif not op_sql:
    2152            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    2153                return f" {this_sql}"
    2154
    2155            return f", {this_sql}"
    2156
    2157        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
    2158            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    2159
    2160        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    2162    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    2163        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2164        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    2165        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    2167    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2168        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    2169
    2170        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    2171        if cross_apply is True:
    2172            op = "INNER JOIN "
    2173        elif cross_apply is False:
    2174            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    2175        else:
    2176            op = ""
    2177
    2178        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    2180    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2182
    2183        if expression.args.get("view"):
    2184            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2185            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    2186            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    2187            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    2188            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    2189            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    2190
    2191        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2192        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2193        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2195    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2197
    2198        args = [
    2199            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    2200            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    2201            if e
    2202        ]
    2203
    2204        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    2205        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2208
    2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str: View Source

    2211    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2213        value = expression.expression
    2214        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2216        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2217        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str: View Source

    2219    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    2220        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2221        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2224        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2225        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2226        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    2227        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str: View Source

    2229    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    2230        expressions = (
    2231            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    2232        )
    2233        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    2234        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str: View Source

    2236    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    2237        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str: View Source

    2239    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    2240        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    2241            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    2242            return ""
    2243
    2244        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    2245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2246        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    2247        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    2248
    2249        if wait is not None:
    2250            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    2251                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    2252            else:
    2253                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    2254
    2255        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str: View Source

    2257    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    2258        text = expression.this or ""
    2259        if expression.is_string:
    2260            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2261        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    2263    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
    2264        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
    2265            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
    2266            text = "".join(
    2267                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
    2268            )
    2269
    2270        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
    2271            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
    2272        )

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str: View Source

    2274    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    2275        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    2276        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    2277        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    2278        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2279        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    2280        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    2281        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    2282        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    2283        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    2284        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    2285        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    2287    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    2288        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str: View Source

    2290    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    2291        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    2293    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2295        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    2296        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    2297        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str: View Source

    2299    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    2300        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    2301        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    2302        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2303        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2304        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    2305        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    2306        interpolated_values = [
    2307            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    2308            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    2309        ]
    2310        interpolate = (
    2311            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    2312        )
    2313        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str: View Source

    2315    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    2316        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str: View Source

    2318    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    2319        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str: View Source

    2321    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    2322        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str: View Source

    2324    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    2325        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    2326        asc = not desc
    2327
    2328        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    2329        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    2330        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    2331        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    2332        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    2333
    2334        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2335
    2336        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    2337        nulls_sort_change = ""
    2338        if nulls_first and (
    2339            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    2340        ):
    2341            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    2342        elif (
    2343            nulls_last
    2344            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    2345            and not nulls_are_last
    2346        ):
    2347            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    2348
    2349        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    2350        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    2351            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    2352            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    2353                self.unsupported(
    2354                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    2355                )
    2356                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2357            elif (
    2358                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
    2359                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
    2360                and (
    2361                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
    2362                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
    2363                )
    2364            ):
    2365                self.unsupported(
    2366                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
    2367                )
    2368                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2369            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    2370                if expression.this.is_int:
    2371                    self.unsupported(
    2372                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2373                    )
    2374                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
    2375                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2376                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2377                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2378
    2379        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2380        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2381
    2382        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str: View Source

    2384    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
    2385        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
    2386        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
    2387
    2388        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2389
    2390        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2392    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2393        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2394        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2395        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2396        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2397        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2398        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2399        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2400        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2401        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2402        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2403        definition_sqls = [
    2404            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2405            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2406        ]
    2407        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2408        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2409        body = "".join(
    2410            (
    2411                partition,
    2412                order,
    2413                measures,
    2414                rows,
    2415                after,
    2416                pattern,
    2417                define,
    2418            )
    2419        )
    2420        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2421        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2422        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2424    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2425        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2426
    2427        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2428            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2429        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2430            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2431
    2432        return csv(
    2433            *sqls,
    2434            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2435            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2436            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2437            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2438            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
    2439            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2440            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2441            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2442            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
    2443            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2444            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
    2445            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2446            self.options_modifier(expression),
    2447            sep="",
    2448        )

def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str: View Source

    2450    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
    2451        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    2452        return f" {options}" if options else ""

def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str: View Source

    2454    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
    2455        return ""

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2457    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2458        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2459    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2460        return [
    2461            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2462            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2463        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2465    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2466        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2467        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2468        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str: View Source

    2470    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2471        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2472        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2473            into.pop()
    2474
    2475        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2476        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2477        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2478        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2479
    2480        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2481        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
    2482            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2483            limit.pop()
    2484        else:
    2485            top = ""
    2486
    2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2488
    2489        if kind:
    2490            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2491                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2492            else:
    2493                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2494                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2495                        sqls=[
    2496                            self.sql(
    2497                                exp.Struct(
    2498                                    expressions=[
    2499                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
    2500                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
    2501                                        else e
    2502                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2503                                    ]
    2504                                )
    2505                            )
    2506                        ]
    2507                    )
    2508                kind = ""
    2509
    2510        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2511        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2512        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2513        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2514        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2515            expression,
    2516            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2517            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2518            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2519        )
    2520
    2521        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2522
    2523        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2524            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2525                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2526            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2527                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2528            else:
    2529                table_kind = ""
    2530            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2531
    2532        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2534    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2536        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2537        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2539    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2540        if expression.expressions:
    2541            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2542        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str: View Source

    2544    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2545        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2546        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2547        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2548        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2549        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
    2550        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
    2551        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str: View Source

    2553    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2555        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str: View Source

    2557    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2559        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2560        if kind:
    2561            kind = f"{kind}."
    2562        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str: View Source

    2564    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2565        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2567    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2568        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2569        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2570        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
    2571        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
    2572            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
    2573
    2574            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
    2575            expression.set("sample", None)
    2576
    2577        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
    2578        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str: View Source

    2581    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2582        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2583        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2585    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2586        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2587
    2588        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2589        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2590
    2591        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2592            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2593                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2594
    2595        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2596            columns = alias.columns
    2597            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2598        else:
    2599            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2600
    2601        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2602        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2603            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2604        else:
    2605            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2606                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2607            elif offset:
    2608                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2609            else:
    2610                suffix = alias
    2611
    2612        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str: View Source

    2614    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
    2615        return ""

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str: View Source

    2617    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2618        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2619        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str: View Source

    2621    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2623        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2625        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2626        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2627        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2628        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2629
    2630        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2631
    2632        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2633        if first is None:
    2634            first = ""
    2635        else:
    2636            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2637
    2638        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2639            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2640
    2641        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2642        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2644    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2645        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2646        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str: View Source

    2648    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2649        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2650        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2651        end = (
    2652            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2653            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2654        )
    2655        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str: View Source

    2657    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2659        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2660        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str: View Source

    2662    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2664        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2665        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2666        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2668    def bracket_offset_expressions(
    2669        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    2670    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2671        return apply_index_offset(
    2672            expression.this,
    2673            expression.expressions,
    2674            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2675        )

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str: View Source

    2677    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2678        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
    2679        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2680        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str: View Source

    2682    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2683        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str: View Source

    2685    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2687        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
    2688            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
    2689                this = self.wrap(this)
    2690            return f"ANY{this}"
    2691        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str: View Source

    2693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str: View Source

    2696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2699
    2700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2703
    2704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2705
    2706        if default:
    2707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2708
    2709        statements.append("END")
    2710
    2711        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
    2712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2713
    2714        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str: View Source

    2716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str: View Source

    2721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2722        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str: View Source

    2726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str: View Source

    2731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2733
    2734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2735            func_name = "LTRIM"
    2736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2737            func_name = "RTRIM"
    2738        else:
    2739            func_name = "TRIM"
    2740
    2741        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2743    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2744        args = expression.expressions
    2745        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2746            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2747
    2748        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2749            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
    2750
    2751        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2752            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2753
    2754        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str: View Source

    2756    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2757        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2758
    2759        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2760        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2761            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2762
    2763        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str: View Source

    2765    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2766        return self.func(
    2767            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2768        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str: View Source

    2770    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2771        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2772        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2774    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2775        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2776        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2777        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2778        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2779        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2780        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2781        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2782        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2784    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2785        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2788        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str: View Source

    2790    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2791        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str: View Source

    2793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str: View Source

    2798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str: View Source

    2801    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2802        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2803
    2804        if expression.args.get("escape"):
    2805            path = self.escape_str(path)
    2806
    2807        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
    2808            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2809
    2810        return path

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str: View Source

    2812    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2813        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2814            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2815            if not callable(transform):
    2816                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2817                return ""
    2818
    2819            return transform(self, expression)
    2820
    2821        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2822            return str(expression)
    2823
    2824        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2825            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2826            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2827        else:
    2828            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2829            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2830
    2831        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str: View Source

    2833    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2836    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2837        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2838        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2839
    2840        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2841        if unique_keys is not None:
    2842            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2843        else:
    2844            unique_keys = ""
    2845
    2846        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2847        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2848        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2849        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2850
    2851        return self.func(
    2852            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2853            *expression.expressions,
    2854            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2855        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2857    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2858        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str: View Source

    2860    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2861        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2862        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2863        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2864        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2865        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2866        return self.func(
    2867            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2868        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    2870    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2873        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2874        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2875        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2876        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2877        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2878        return self.func(
    2879            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2880            this,
    2881            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2882        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2884    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2885        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2886        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2887        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2888
    2889        if nested_schema:
    2890            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2891
    2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2894        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2895        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str: View Source

    2897    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2898        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str: View Source

    2900    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2902        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2903        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2904        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2905        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2906        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2907        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2908        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2909        return self.func(
    2910            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2911        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2913    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2916        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2917        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2918        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2919        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str: View Source

    2921    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2923        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2924        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2925        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2926        with_ = (
    2927            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2928            if expressions
    2929            else ""
    2930        )
    2931        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str: View Source

    2933    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2934        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2935        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2936        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2937        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2938
    2939        if query:
    2940            in_sql = self.sql(query)
    2941        elif unnest:
    2942            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2943        elif field:
    2944            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2945        else:
    2946            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2947
    2948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2950    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2951        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str: View Source

    2953    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2954        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2955        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2956            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2957        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2958
    2959        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2960            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2961            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2962
    2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2964        if this:
    2965            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2966            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2967
    2968        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str: View Source

    2970    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2971        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str: View Source

    2973    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2976        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2979        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str: View Source

    2981    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2982        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
    2983        parent = expression.parent
    2984        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
    2985        return self.func(
    2986            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
    2987        )

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str: View Source

    2989    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2990        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2991        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str: View Source

    2993    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2994        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2995        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2996        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2997        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str: View Source

    2999    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    3000        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str: View Source

    3002    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    3003        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    3004        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    3005        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str: View Source

    3007    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    3008        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    3009
    3010        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    3011        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
    3012
    3013        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3014            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    3015        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    3016            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    3017
    3018        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str: View Source

    3020    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    3021        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3023    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3025        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3026        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3028    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3030        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3031        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    3033    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    3034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3035        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    3036        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str: View Source

    3038    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    3039        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3041    def and_sql(
    3042        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3043    ) -> str:
    3044        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3046    def or_sql(
    3047        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3048    ) -> str:
    3049        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3051    def xor_sql(
    3052        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    3053    ) -> str:
    3054        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str: View Source

    3056    def connector_sql(
    3057        self,
    3058        expression: exp.Connector,
    3059        op: str,
    3060        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3061    ) -> str:
    3062        if stack is not None:
    3063            if expression.expressions:
    3064                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
    3065            else:
    3066                stack.append(expression.right)
    3067                if expression.comments and self.comments:
    3068                    for comment in expression.comments:
    3069                        if comment:
    3070                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
    3071                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
    3072            return op
    3073
    3074        stack = [expression]
    3075        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3076        ops = set()
    3077
    3078        while stack:
    3079            node = stack.pop()
    3080            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
    3081                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
    3082            else:
    3083                sql = self.sql(node)
    3084                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
    3085                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
    3086                else:
    3087                    sqls.append(sql)
    3088
    3089        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
    3090        return sep.join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str: View Source

    3092    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    3093        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str: View Source

    3095    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    3096        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str: View Source

    3098    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    3099        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str: View Source

    3101    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    3102        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str: View Source

    3104    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    3105        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str: View Source

    3107    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    3108        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    3110    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    3111        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    3112        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    3113        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3114        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    3115        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
    3116        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
    3117        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str: View Source

    3119    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    3120        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3121        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str: View Source

    3123    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    3124        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    3125            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3126        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str: View Source

    3128    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    3129        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str: View Source

    3131    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3133        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    3134        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    3135        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3136        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3137        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str: View Source

    3139    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    3140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3141        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    3142        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    3143        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    3144        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    3145        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    3146        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    3147        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    3148        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str: View Source

    3150    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    3151        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    3152        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    3153        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    3154        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    3155
    3156        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    3157            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    3158
    3159        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str: View Source

    3161    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    3162        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str: View Source

    3164    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    3165        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    3166        if chain is not None:
    3167            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    3168
    3169        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str: View Source

    3171    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    3172        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    3173        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    3174        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str: View Source

    3176    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    3177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3178
    3179        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    3180        if dtype:
    3181            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    3182            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    3183            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3184            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    3186
    3187        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    3188        if default:
    3189            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    3190
    3191        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3192        if comment:
    3193            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    3194
    3195        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
    3196        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
    3197
    3198        if not drop and not allow_null:
    3199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    3200
    3201        if allow_null is not None:
    3202            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
    3203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
    3204
    3205        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str: View Source

    3207    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
    3208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3209        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
    3210            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
    3211        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str: View Source

    3213    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
    3214        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
    3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3218        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str: View Source

    3220    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    3221        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    3222            # Remove db from tables
    3223            expression = expression.transform(
    3224                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    3225            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
    3226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3227        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str: View Source

    3229    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    3230        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3231        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3232        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    3233        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str: View Source

    3235    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
    3236        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3237        return f"SET {exprs}"

def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str: View Source

    3239    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3240        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    3241
    3242        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    3243            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    3244        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    3245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    3246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    3247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
    3249            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
    3250        else:
    3251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    3252
    3253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3254        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3255        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3256        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    3257        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
    3258        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
    3259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3260        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
    3261
    3262        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str: View Source

    3264    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
    3265        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    3266            return self.expressions(
    3267                expression,
    3268                key="actions",
    3269                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    3270                skip_first=True,
    3271            )
    3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str: View Source

    3274    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    3275        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    3276        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    3277        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3279    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    3280        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str: View Source

    3282    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    3283        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3284
    3285        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    3286            case = exp.case()
    3287            for arg in expression.expressions:
    3288                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    3289            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    3290
    3291        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3292
    3293        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    3294        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    3295        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str: View Source

    3297    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    3298        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str: View Source

    3300    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    3301        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str: View Source

    3303    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
    3304        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3305        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3306        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
    3307        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str: View Source

    3309    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    3310        return self.sql(
    3311            exp.Cast(
    3312                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    3313                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    3314            )
    3315        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str: View Source

    3317    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    3318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3319            return self.func(
    3320                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
    3321            )
    3322        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str: View Source

    3324    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    3325        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    3326
    3327        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    3328            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    3329
    3330        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    3331            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
    3332                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3333
    3334        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    3335            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    3336                return self.sql(
    3337                    exp.cast(
    3338                        l / r,
    3339                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    3340                    )
    3341                )
    3342
    3343        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str: View Source

    3345    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    3346        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str: View Source

    3348    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    3349        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str: View Source

    3351    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str: View Source

    3354    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    3355        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str: View Source

    3357    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    3358        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str: View Source

    3360    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    3361        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str: View Source

    3363    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    3364        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str: View Source

    3366    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    3367        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str: View Source

    3369    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    3370        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str: View Source

    3372    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    3373        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3375    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    3376        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str: View Source

    3378    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    3379        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    3380            return self.sql(
    3381                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    3382            )
    3383        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str: View Source

    3385    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    3386        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str: View Source

    3388    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    3389        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str: View Source

    3391    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    3392        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str: View Source

    3394    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    3395        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str: View Source

    3397    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    3398        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str: View Source

    3400    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    3401        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str: View Source

    3403    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    3404        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str: View Source

    3406    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    3407        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str: View Source

    3409    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    3410        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str: View Source

    3412    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    3413        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str: View Source

    3415    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    3416        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str: View Source

    3418    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    3419        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str: View Source

    3421    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    3422        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str: View Source

    3424    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
    3425        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
    3426            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
    3427            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    3428
    3429        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str: View Source

    3431    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    3432        this = expression.this
    3433        expr = expression.expression
    3434
    3435        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
    3436            this, expr = expr, this
    3437        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
    3438            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
    3439                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
    3440
    3441            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
    3442
    3443        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str: View Source

    3445    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3446        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3447        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3449        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3450        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3452    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3453        sqls: t.List[str] = []
    3454        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
    3455        binary_type = type(expression)
    3456
    3457        while stack:
    3458            node = stack.pop()
    3459
    3460            if type(node) is binary_type:
    3461                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
    3462                if op_func:
    3463                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
    3464
    3465                stack.append(node.right)
    3466                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
    3467                stack.append(node.left)
    3468            else:
    3469                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
    3470
    3471        return "".join(sqls)

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str: View Source

    3473    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3474        args = []
    3475
    3476        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3477            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3478
    3479            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3480                for value in arg_value:
    3481                    args.append(value)
    3482            elif arg_value is not None:
    3483                args.append(arg_value)
    3484
    3485        if self.normalize_functions:
    3486            name = expression.sql_name()
    3487        else:
    3488            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3489
    3490        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    3492    def func(
    3493        self,
    3494        name: str,
    3495        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3496        prefix: str = "(",
    3497        suffix: str = ")",
    3498        normalize: bool = True,
    3499    ) -> str:
    3500        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
    3501        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str: View Source

    3503    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3504        arg_sqls = tuple(
    3505            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
    3506        )
    3507        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
    3508            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3509        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)

def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool: View Source

    3511    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
    3512        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3514    def format_time(
    3515        self,
    3516        expression: exp.Expression,
    3517        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
    3518        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    3519    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3520        return format_time(
    3521            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3522            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3523            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3524        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3526    def expressions(
    3527        self,
    3528        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3529        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3530        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3531        flat: bool = False,
    3532        indent: bool = True,
    3533        skip_first: bool = False,
    3534        skip_last: bool = False,
    3535        sep: str = ", ",
    3536        prefix: str = "",
    3537        dynamic: bool = False,
    3538        new_line: bool = False,
    3539    ) -> str:
    3540        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3541
    3542        if not expressions:
    3543            return ""
    3544
    3545        if flat:
    3546            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3547
    3548        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3549        result_sqls = []
    3550
    3551        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3552            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3553            if not sql:
    3554                continue
    3555
    3556            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3557
    3558            if self.pretty:
    3559                if self.leading_comma:
    3560                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3561                else:
    3562                    result_sqls.append(
    3563                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3564                    )
    3565            else:
    3566                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3567
    3568        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
    3569            if new_line:
    3570                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
    3571                result_sqls.append("")
    3572            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
    3573        else:
    3574            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
    3575
    3576        return (
    3577            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
    3578            if indent
    3579            else result_sql
    3580        )

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3582    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3583        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3584        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3585        if flat:
    3586            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3587        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    3589    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3590        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3591        if not property_name:
    3592            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3593        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str: View Source

    3595    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3596        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str: View Source

    3598    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3599        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str: View Source

    3601    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3603        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3604        expressions = (
    3605            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3606        )
    3607        return f"{this}{expressions}"

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str: View Source

    3609    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3611        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3612        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str: View Source

    3614    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3615        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str: View Source

    3617    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3618        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3619        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3620        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3621        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3622
    3623        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3624        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3625            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
    3626            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
    3627            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
    3628            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
    3629        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3630            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3631                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3632            else:
    3633                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3634        else:
    3635            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3636        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str: View Source

    3638    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3639        table = expression.this
    3640        table_alias = ""
    3641
    3642        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3643        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3644            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3645            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3646
    3647        this = self.sql(table)
    3648        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3649        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3650        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
    3651        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    3652        if returning:
    3653            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
    3654
    3655        sep = self.sep()
    3656
    3657        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3658            expression,
    3659            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
    3660        )

@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str: View Source

    3662    @unsupported_args("format")
    3663    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3664        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str: View Source

    3666    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
    3667        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
    3668            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
    3669            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3670
    3671        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
    3672        if not fmt:
    3673            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
    3674            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    3675
    3676        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str: View Source

    3678    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3681        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3682        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3683        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str: View Source

    3685    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3687        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3688        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3689        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str: View Source

    3691    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str: View Source

    3694    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
    3695        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3698    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
    3699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3700        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
    3701        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3703        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
    3704        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    3705        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str: View Source

    3707    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3708        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3710    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3712        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3713        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3714        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3715        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str: View Source

    3717    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3719        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3720
    3721        if having:
    3722            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3723
    3724        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str: View Source

    3726    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3727        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3728        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3729        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3730        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3731        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3732        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3733        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3734        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3735        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3736        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3737        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3738        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3739        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str: View Source

    3741    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3742        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3743        if key_block_size:
    3744            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3745
    3746        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3747        if using:
    3748            return f"USING {using}"
    3749
    3750        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3751        if parser:
    3752            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3753
    3754        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3755        if comment:
    3756            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3757
    3758        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3759        if visible is not None:
    3760            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3761
    3762        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3763        if engine_attr:
    3764            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3765
    3766        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3767        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3768            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3769
    3770        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3771        return ""

def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3773    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3774        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
    3775        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3777    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3778        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3779        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3781        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3782        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3783        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3785        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    3786        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3787        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3788        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str: View Source

    3790    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3791        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3792            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3793
    3794        case = exp.Case().when(
    3795            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3796            expression.args["true"],
    3797            copy=False,
    3798        )
    3799        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3800        if else_cond:
    3801            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3802
    3803        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str: View Source

    3805    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3807        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3808        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3809        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3810        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3811        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str: View Source

    3813    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3814        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str: View Source

    3816    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3817        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str: View Source

    3819    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3820        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3821        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3822        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3823        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3824        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3825        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str: View Source

    3827    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3830        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str: View Source

    3832    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3834        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3835        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str: View Source

    3837    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3838        arg = expression.this
    3839        if not arg.type:
    3840            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3841
    3842            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3843
    3844        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3845            return self.sql(arg)
    3846
    3847        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3848        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str: View Source

    3850    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3851        this = expression.this
    3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3853            return self.sql(this)
    3854
    3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    3857    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
    3858        this = expression.this
    3859        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
    3860            return self.sql(this)
    3861
    3862        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str: View Source

    3864    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3865        this = expression.this
    3866        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3867
    3868        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3869            return self.sql(
    3870                exp.cast(
    3871                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
    3872                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
    3873                )
    3874            )
    3875
    3876        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3877            return self.sql(this)
    3878
    3879        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str: View Source

    3881    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3882        return self.sql(
    3883            exp.func(
    3884                "DATEDIFF",
    3885                expression.this,
    3886                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
    3887                "day",
    3888            )
    3889        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str: View Source

    3891    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3892        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3893            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3894
    3895        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3896        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3897            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3898
    3899        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str: View Source

    3901    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
    3902        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
    3903
    3904        return self.func(
    3905            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
    3906        )

def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str: View Source

    3908    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
    3909        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
    3910            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
    3911            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
    3912            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
    3913            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
    3914
    3915        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    3916
    3917        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
    3918        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
    3919            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
    3920
    3921        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str: View Source

    3923    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
    3924        expression.set(
    3925            "expressions",
    3926            [
    3927                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
    3928                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
    3929                else e
    3930                for e in expression.expressions
    3931            ],
    3932        )
    3933
    3934        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str: View Source

    3936    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
    3937        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3938        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3939
    3940        return f"{low} TO {high}"

def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str: View Source

    3942    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
    3943        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
    3944        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
    3945
    3946        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    3947
    3948        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
    3949        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
    3950
    3951        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
    3952        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
    3953
    3954        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
    3955        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
    3956
    3957        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    3958        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    3959
    3960        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str: View Source

    3964    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
    3965        to = expression.this
    3966        value = expression.expression
    3967        style = expression.args.get("style")
    3968        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
    3969        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
    3970
    3971        if not to or not value:
    3972            return ""
    3973
    3974        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
    3975        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3976            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
    3977
    3978        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
    3979        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
    3980
    3981        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
    3982        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
    3983            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
    3984
    3985            style_value = style.name
    3986            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
    3987            if not converted_style:
    3988                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
    3989
    3990            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
    3991
    3992            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
    3993                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
    3994            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
    3995                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
    3996            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
    3997                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
    3998            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
    3999                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
    4000
    4001        if not transformed:
    4002            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
    4003
    4004        return self.sql(transformed)

def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str: View Source

    4060    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
    4061        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4062
    4063        if expression.expressions:
    4064            upper = option.upper()
    4065
    4066            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
    4067            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
    4068
    4069            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
    4070            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
    4071            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
    4072            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
    4073
    4074        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4075
    4076        if not value:
    4077            return option
    4078
    4079        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
    4080
    4081        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str: View Source

    4083    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
    4084        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
    4085        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
    4086            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
    4087            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4088            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
    4089        else:
    4090            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
    4091            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4092            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
    4093
    4094        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
    4095        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
    4096
    4097        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
    4098        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
    4099
    4100        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
    4101        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
    4102
    4103        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
    4104        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
    4105
    4106        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str: View Source

    4108    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
    4109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4110        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
    4111
    4112        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
    4113        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
    4114        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
    4115        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
    4116
    4117        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
    4118        params = self.expressions(
    4119            expression,
    4120            key="params",
    4121            sep=sep,
    4122            new_line=True,
    4123            skip_last=True,
    4124            skip_first=True,
    4125            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
    4126        )
    4127
    4128        if params:
    4129            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
    4130                params = f" WITH ({params})"
    4131            elif not self.pretty:
    4132                params = f" {params}"
    4133
    4134        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str: View Source

    4136    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
    4137        return ""

def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str: View Source

    4139    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
    4140        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
    4141        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
    4142        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
    4143        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
    4144        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
    4145
    4146        if filter_col or retention_period:
    4147            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
    4148
    4149        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"

def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    4151    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
    4152        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    4153    ) -> str:
    4154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4155        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4156        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    4157        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"

def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str: View Source

    4159    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
    4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4161        this = f"TABLE {this}"
    4162        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str: View Source

    4164    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
    4165        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)

def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str: View Source

    4167    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
    4168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4169        expr = expression.expression
    4170
    4171        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
    4172            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
    4173            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
    4174        else:
    4175            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4176
    4177        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str: View Source

    4179    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
    4180        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
    4181            return self.sql(expression.this)
    4182
    4183        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str: View Source

    4185    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
    4186        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
    4187        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
    4188
    4189        if lower and upper:
    4190            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
    4191        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)

def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str: View Source

    4193    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
    4194        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
    4195        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
    4196        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
    4197        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
    4198        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
    4199        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
    4200
    4201        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"

def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str: View Source

    4203    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
    4204        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
    4205
    4206        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
    4207        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
    4208            fill_pattern = "' '"
    4209
    4210        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)

def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str: View Source

    4212    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
    4213        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
    4214        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"

def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str: View Source

    4216    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
    4217        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
    4218
    4219        parent = expression.parent
    4220        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
    4221            parent = parent.parent
    4222
    4223        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
    4224            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
    4225
    4226        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
    4227            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
    4228
    4229        return self.sql(generate_series)

def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str: View Source

    4231    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
    4232        exprs = expression.expressions
    4233        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
    4234            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
    4235        else:
    4236            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
    4237
    4238        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)

def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str: View Source

    4240    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
    4241        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
    4242            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4243
    4244        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
    4245        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
    4246        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
    4247
    4248        if source_tz and timestamp:
    4249            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
    4250                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
    4251            )
    4252
    4253        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
    4254
    4255        return self.sql(expr)

def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str: View Source

    4257    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
    4258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4259        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    4260
    4261        _with = expression.args.get("with")
    4262
    4263        if _with is None:
    4264            with_sql = ""
    4265        elif not _with:
    4266            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
    4267        else:
    4268            with_sql = " WITH"
    4269
    4270        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    4271
    4272        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"

def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str: View Source

    4274    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
    4275        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
    4276            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
    4277
    4278        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4279        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    4280        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
    4281
    4282        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4283        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4284
    4285        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")

def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str: View Source

    4287    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
    4288        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
    4289        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4290        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
    4291        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
    4292        return f"{condition}{insert}"

def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str: View Source

    4294    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
    4295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4296        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
    4297        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
    4298        return res

def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str: View Source

    4300    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
    4301        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
    4302        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
    4303        empty = (
    4304            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
    4305            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
    4306            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
    4307        )
    4308
    4309        error = expression.args.get("error")
    4310        error = (
    4311            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
    4312            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
    4313            else self.sql(expression, "error")
    4314        )
    4315
    4316        if error and empty:
    4317            error = (
    4318                f"{empty} {error}"
    4319                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
    4320                else f"{error} {empty}"
    4321            )
    4322            empty = ""
    4323
    4324        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
    4325
    4326        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"

def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str: View Source

    4328    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
    4329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4330        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    4331
    4332        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
    4333        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
    4334
    4335        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
    4336        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
    4337
    4338        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
    4339
    4340        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)

def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    4342    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
    4343        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4344
    4345        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
    4346            parent = expression.parent
    4347            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
    4348                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
    4349                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
    4350            else:
    4351                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
    4352                this = expression.this
    4353                this_sql = (
    4354                    self.expressions(this)
    4355                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
    4356                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
    4357                )
    4358                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
    4359
    4360        return array_agg

def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str: View Source

    4362    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
    4363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4364        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4365
    4366        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"

def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str: View Source

    4368    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
    4369        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
    4370
    4371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    4373
    4374        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
    4375        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
    4376
    4377        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
    4378
    4379        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
    4380
    4381        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"

def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege): View Source

    4383    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
    4384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4385        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    4386        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    4387
    4388        return f"{this}{columns}"

def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal): View Source

    4390    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
    4391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4392
    4393        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    4394        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    4395
    4396        return f"{kind}{this}"

def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns): View Source

    4398    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
    4399        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    4400        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
    4401            func = f"*{func}"
    4402
    4403        return func

def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay): View Source

    4405    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
    4406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    4407        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    4408        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    4409        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
    4410        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
    4411
    4412        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"