sqlglot.generator API documentation

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# sqlglot.generator

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       1from __future__ import annotations
       2
       3import logging
       4import re
       5import typing as t
       6from collections import defaultdict
       7from functools import reduce
       8
       9from sqlglot import exp
      10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
      11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
      12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
      13from sqlglot.time import format_time
      14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
      15
      16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
      17    from sqlglot._typing import E
      18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
      19
      20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
      21
      22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
      23
      24
      25class _Generator(type):
      26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
      27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
      28
      29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
      30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
      31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
      32
      33        return klass
      34
      35
      36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      37    """
      38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      39
      40    Args:
      41        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
      42            Default: False.
      43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      45            True or 'always': Always quote.
      46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      47        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      48            Default: False.
      49        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
      50            Default: 2.
      51        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
      52            Default: 2.
      53        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
      54            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      55            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      56            False: Disables function name normalization.
      57        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      58            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      59        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      60            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      61            Default: 3
      62        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      63            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      64            Default: False
      65        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      66            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      67            line length.
      68            Default: 80
      69        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      70            Default: True
      71    """
      72
      73    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      74        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      75        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      76        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      77        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      78        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      79        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      80        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      81        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
      82        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      83        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      84        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      85        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      86        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
      87        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
      88            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
      89        ),
      90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      94        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
      95        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
      96        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
      97        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      98        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      99        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     100        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     101        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     102        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     103        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
     104        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     105        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     106        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     107        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     108        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self,
     109        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     110        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     111        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     112        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     113        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     114        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     115        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     116        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     117        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     118        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     119        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     120        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     121        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
     122        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self,
     123        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     124        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
     125        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: "TEMPORARY",
     126        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     127        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     128        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     129        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
     130        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "UPPERCASE",
     131        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     132        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
     133        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     134    }
     135
     136    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
     137    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     138    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     139
     140    # Whether or not ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     141    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     142    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     143
     144    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     145    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     146
     147    # Always do union distinct or union all
     148    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     149
     150    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     151    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     152
     153    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     154    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     155
     156    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     157    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     158
     159    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     160    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     161
     162    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     163    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     164
     165    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     166    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     167
     168    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     169    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     170
     171    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     172    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     173
     174    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     175    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     176
     177    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     178    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     179
     180    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
     181    JOIN_HINTS = True
     182
     183    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
     184    TABLE_HINTS = True
     185
     186    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
     187    QUERY_HINTS = True
     188
     189    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     190    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     191
     192    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     193    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     194
     195    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     196    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     197
     198    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     199    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     200
     201    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     202    RETURNING_END = True
     203
     204    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     205    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     206
     207    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     208    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     209
     210    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     211    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     212
     213    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
     214    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     215
     216    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     217    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     218
     219    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     220    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     221    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     222    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     223
     224    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     225    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     226
     227    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     228    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     229
     230    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     231    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     232
     233    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     234    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     235
     236    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     237    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     238
     239    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     240    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     241
     242    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     243    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     244
     245    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     246    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     247
     248    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     249    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     250
     251    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     252    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     253
     254    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     255    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     256
     257    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     258    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     259
     260    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     261    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     262
     263    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     264    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     265
     266    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     267    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     268
     269    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     270    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     271
     272    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     273    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     274
     275    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
     276    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     277
     278    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     279    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     280
     281    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     282    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     283
     284    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     285    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     286
     287    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     288    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     289
     290    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
     291    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     292
     293    # Whether or not the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     294    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     295
     296    # Whether or not the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     297    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     298
     299    # Whether or not DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     300    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     301    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     302
     303    # Whether or not the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     304    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     305
     306    # Whether or not bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     307    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     308
     309    # Whether or not to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     310    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     311
     312    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     313    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     314
     315    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     316        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     317        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     318        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     319        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     320        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     321        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     322        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     323        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     324        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     325    }
     326
     327    STAR_MAPPING = {
     328        "except": "EXCEPT",
     329        "replace": "REPLACE",
     330    }
     331
     332    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     333        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     334        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     335        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     336        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     337        "DAYS": "DAY",
     338        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     339        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     340        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     341        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     342    }
     343
     344    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     345
     346    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     347
     348    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     349
     350    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     351        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     352        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     353        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     354        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     355        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     356        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     357        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     358        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     359        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     360        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     361        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     362        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     363        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     364        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     365        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     366        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     367        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     368        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     369        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     370        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     371        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     372        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     373        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     374        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     375        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     376        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     377        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     378        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     379        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     380        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     381        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     382        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     383        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     384        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     385        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     386        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     387        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     388        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     389        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     390        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     391        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     392        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     393        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     394        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     395        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     396        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     397        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     398        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     399        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     400        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     403        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     404        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     405        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     406        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     409        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     410        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     411        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     412        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     413        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     414        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     415        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     416        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     417        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     418        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     419    }
     420
     421    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     422    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     423
     424    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     425    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     426        exp.Create,
     427        exp.Delete,
     428        exp.Drop,
     429        exp.From,
     430        exp.Insert,
     431        exp.Join,
     432        exp.Select,
     433        exp.Update,
     434        exp.Where,
     435        exp.With,
     436    )
     437
     438    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     439    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     440        exp.Binary,
     441        exp.Union,
     442    )
     443
     444    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     445    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     446        exp.Column,
     447        exp.Literal,
     448        exp.Neg,
     449        exp.Paren,
     450    )
     451
     452    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     453    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     454
     455    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
     456
     457    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     458
     459    __slots__ = (
     460        "pretty",
     461        "identify",
     462        "normalize",
     463        "pad",
     464        "_indent",
     465        "normalize_functions",
     466        "unsupported_level",
     467        "max_unsupported",
     468        "leading_comma",
     469        "max_text_width",
     470        "comments",
     471        "dialect",
     472        "unsupported_messages",
     473        "_escaped_quote_end",
     474        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     475    )
     476
     477    def __init__(
     478        self,
     479        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     480        identify: str | bool = False,
     481        normalize: bool = False,
     482        pad: int = 2,
     483        indent: int = 2,
     484        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     485        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     486        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     487        leading_comma: bool = False,
     488        max_text_width: int = 80,
     489        comments: bool = True,
     490        dialect: DialectType = None,
     491    ):
     492        import sqlglot
     493        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     494
     495        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     496        self.identify = identify
     497        self.normalize = normalize
     498        self.pad = pad
     499        self._indent = indent
     500        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     501        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     502        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     503        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     504        self.comments = comments
     505        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     506
     507        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     508        self.normalize_functions = (
     509            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     510        )
     511
     512        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     513        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     514            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     515        )
     516        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     517            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     518        )
     519
     520    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     521        """
     522        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     523
     524        Args:
     525            expression: The syntax tree.
     526            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     527                it is safer to copy.
     528
     529        Returns:
     530            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     531        """
     532        if copy:
     533            expression = expression.copy()
     534
     535        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     536
     537        self.unsupported_messages = []
     538        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     539
     540        if self.pretty:
     541            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     542
     543        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     544            return sql
     545
     546        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     547            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     548                logger.warning(msg)
     549        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     550            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     551
     552        return sql
     553
     554    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     555        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     556        if (
     557            not expression.parent
     558            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     559            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     560        ):
     561            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     562
     563            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     564
     565        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     566            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     567
     568            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     569
     570        return expression
     571
     572    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     573        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     574            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     575        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     576
     577    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     578        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     579
     580    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     581        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     582
     583    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     584        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     585        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     586        return comment
     587
     588    def maybe_comment(
     589        self,
     590        sql: str,
     591        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     592        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     593    ) -> str:
     594        comments = (
     595            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     596            if self.comments
     597            else None
     598        )
     599
     600        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     601            return sql
     602
     603        comments_sql = " ".join(
     604            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     605        )
     606
     607        if not comments_sql:
     608            return sql
     609
     610        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     611            return (
     612                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     613                if sql[0].isspace()
     614                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     615            )
     616
     617        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     618
     619    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     620        this_sql = self.indent(
     621            (
     622                self.sql(expression)
     623                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
     624                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     625            ),
     626            level=1,
     627            pad=0,
     628        )
     629        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     630
     631    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     632        original = self.identify
     633        self.identify = False
     634        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     635        self.identify = original
     636        return result
     637
     638    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     639        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     640            return name.upper()
     641        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     642            return name.lower()
     643        return name
     644
     645    def indent(
     646        self,
     647        sql: str,
     648        level: int = 0,
     649        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     650        skip_first: bool = False,
     651        skip_last: bool = False,
     652    ) -> str:
     653        if not self.pretty:
     654            return sql
     655
     656        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     657        lines = sql.split("\n")
     658
     659        return "\n".join(
     660            (
     661                line
     662                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     663                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     664            )
     665            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     666        )
     667
     668    def sql(
     669        self,
     670        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     671        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     672        comment: bool = True,
     673    ) -> str:
     674        if not expression:
     675            return ""
     676
     677        if isinstance(expression, str):
     678            return expression
     679
     680        if key:
     681            value = expression.args.get(key)
     682            if value:
     683                return self.sql(value)
     684            return ""
     685
     686        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     687
     688        if callable(transform):
     689            sql = transform(self, expression)
     690        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     691            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     692
     693            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     694                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     695            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     696                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     697            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     698                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     699            else:
     700                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     701        else:
     702            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     703
     704        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     705
     706    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     707        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     708        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     709        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     710
     711    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     712        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     713        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     714        options = expression.args.get("options")
     715        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     716        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     717        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     718        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     719        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     720
     721    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     722        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     723            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     724        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     725        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     726
     727    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     728        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     729
     730        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     731            join_mark = ""
     732            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     733
     734        column = ".".join(
     735            self.sql(part)
     736            for part in (
     737                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     738                expression.args.get("db"),
     739                expression.args.get("table"),
     740                expression.args.get("this"),
     741            )
     742            if part
     743        )
     744
     745        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
     746
     747    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     749        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     750        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     751        return f"{position}{this}"
     752
     753    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     754        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     755        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     756        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     757        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     758        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     759        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     760        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     761        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     762
     763        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     764            kind = ""
     765
     766        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     767
     768    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     770        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     771        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     772
     773    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     775        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     776            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     777        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     778            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     779        else:
     780            persisted = ""
     781        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     782
     783    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     784        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     785
     786    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     787        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     788            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     789        else:
     790            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     791
     792        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     793
     794    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     795        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     796    ) -> str:
     797        this = ""
     798        if expression.this is not None:
     799            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     800            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     801
     802        start = expression.args.get("start")
     803        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     804        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     805        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     806        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     807        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     808        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     809        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     810        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     811        cycle_sql = ""
     812
     813        if cycle is not None:
     814            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     815            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     816
     817        sequence_opts = ""
     818        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     819            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     820            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     821
     822        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     823        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     824
     825        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     826
     827    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     828        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     829    ) -> str:
     830        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     831        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     832        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     833
     834    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     835        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     836    ) -> str:
     837        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     838
     839    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     840        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     841
     842    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     843        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     844
     845    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     846        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     847        if desc is not None:
     848            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     849        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     850
     851    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     853        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     854        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     855        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     856        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
     857
     858    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     859        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     860
     861    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     863        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     864        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     865
     866        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     867
     868        properties_sql = ""
     869        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     870            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     871        ):
     872            properties_sql = self.sql(
     873                exp.Properties(
     874                    expressions=[
     875                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     876                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     877                    ]
     878                )
     879            )
     880
     881        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     882        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     883
     884        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     885        if expression_sql:
     886            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     887
     888            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     889                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     890                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     891                        exp.Properties(
     892                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     893                        ),
     894                        wrapped=False,
     895                    )
     896                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     897                else:
     898                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     899
     900        postindex_props_sql = ""
     901        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     902            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     903                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     904                wrapped=False,
     905                prefix=" ",
     906            )
     907
     908        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     909        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     910        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     911
     912        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     913        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     914
     915        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     916        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     917            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     918                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     919                sep=" ",
     920                prefix=" ",
     921                wrapped=False,
     922            )
     923
     924        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     925
     926        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     927        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     928            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     929                exp.Properties(
     930                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     931                ),
     932                sep=" ",
     933                prefix=" ",
     934                wrapped=False,
     935            )
     936
     937        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     938        no_schema_binding = (
     939            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
     940        )
     941
     942        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
     943        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
     944
     945        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
     946        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
     947
     948    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
     949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     950        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
     951        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
     952        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
     953
     954    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
     955        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
     956        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     957
     958    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
     959        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
     960        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
     961
     962    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
     963        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
     964        if with_:
     965            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     966        return sql
     967
     968    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
     969        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
     970        recursive = (
     971            "RECURSIVE "
     972            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
     973            else ""
     974        )
     975
     976        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
     977
     978    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
     979        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
     980        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
     981
     982    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
     983        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
     984        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
     985        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
     986
     987        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
     988            columns = ""
     989            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
     990
     991        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
     992            alias = "_t"
     993
     994        return f"{alias}{columns}"
     995
     996    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
     997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     998        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
     999            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1000        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1001
    1002    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1004        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1005            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1006        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1007
    1008    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1009        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1010        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1011            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1012        return this
    1013
    1014    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1016        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1017
    1018        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1019            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1020            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1021
    1022        if escape:
    1023            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1024        else:
    1025            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1026
    1027        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1028        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1029
    1030    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1031        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
    1032        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1033
    1034    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1036        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1037        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1038        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1039
    1040    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1041        type_value = expression.this
    1042
    1043        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1044            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1045        else:
    1046            type_sql = (
    1047                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1048                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1049                else type_value
    1050            )
    1051
    1052        nested = ""
    1053        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1054        values = ""
    1055
    1056        if interior:
    1057            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1058                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1059                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1060                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1061                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1062                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1063            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1064                nested = f" {interior}"
    1065            else:
    1066                nested = f"({interior})"
    1067
    1068        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1069        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1070            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1071            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1072        ):
    1073            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1074
    1075        return type_sql
    1076
    1077    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1078        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1079        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1080        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1081        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1082
    1083    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1085        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1086        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1087        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1088        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1089        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1090        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1091        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1092        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1093        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1094            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1095        else:
    1096            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1097        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1098
    1099    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1101        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1102        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1103        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1104        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1105        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1106        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1107        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1108        return (
    1109            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1110        )
    1111
    1112    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1113        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1114            expression,
    1115            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
    1116        )
    1117
    1118    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1119        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1120
    1121    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1122        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1123        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1124        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1125        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1126        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1127            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1128        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1129        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1130
    1131    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1132        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1133            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1134            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1135            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1136
    1137        agg = expression.this
    1138        agg_arg = agg.this
    1139        cond = expression.expression.this
    1140        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1141        return self.sql(agg)
    1142
    1143    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1144        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1145            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1146            return ""
    1147
    1148        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1149
    1150    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1151        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1152        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1153        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1154        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1155        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1156        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1157        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1158        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1159        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1160        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1161        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1162        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1163        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1164        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1165        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1166        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1167        if include:
    1168            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1169        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
    1170
    1171    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1172        text = expression.name
    1173        lower = text.lower()
    1174        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1175        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1176        if (
    1177            expression.quoted
    1178            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1179            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1180            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1181        ):
    1182            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1183        return text
    1184
    1185    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1186        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1187        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1188        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1189        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1190        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1191
    1192    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1193        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1194        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1195
    1196    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1197        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1198
    1199    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1200        root_properties = []
    1201        with_properties = []
    1202
    1203        for p in expression.expressions:
    1204            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1205            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1206                with_properties.append(p)
    1207            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1208                root_properties.append(p)
    1209
    1210        return self.root_properties(
    1211            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1212        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1213
    1214    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1215        if properties.expressions:
    1216            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1217        return ""
    1218
    1219    def properties(
    1220        self,
    1221        properties: exp.Properties,
    1222        prefix: str = "",
    1223        sep: str = ", ",
    1224        suffix: str = "",
    1225        wrapped: bool = True,
    1226    ) -> str:
    1227        if properties.expressions:
    1228            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1229            if expressions:
    1230                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1231                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1232        return ""
    1233
    1234    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1235        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1236
    1237    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1238        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1239        for p in properties.expressions:
    1240            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1241            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1242                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1243            else:
    1244                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1245
    1246        return properties_locs
    1247
    1248    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1249        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1250            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1251        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1252
    1253    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1254        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1255        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1256            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1257
    1258        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1259        if not property_name:
    1260            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1261
    1262        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1263
    1264    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1265        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1266            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1267            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1268
    1269            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1270            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1271                like = f"({like})"
    1272
    1273            return like
    1274
    1275        if expression.expressions:
    1276            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1277
    1278        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1279        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1280
    1281    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1282        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1283        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1284        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1285
    1286    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1287        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1288        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1289        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1290        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1291        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1292        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1293        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1294
    1295    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1296        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1297        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1298        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1299
    1300    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1301        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1302            property = "DEFAULT"
    1303        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1304            property = "ON"
    1305        else:
    1306            property = "OFF"
    1307        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1308
    1309    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1310        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1311            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1312        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1313            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1314
    1315        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1316        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1317
    1318    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1319        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1320        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1321        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1322        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1323            if default:
    1324                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1325            elif minimum:
    1326                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1327            else:
    1328                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1329            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1330        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1331        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1332        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1333
    1334    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1335        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1336        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1337        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1338        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1339        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1340
    1341        if autotemp is not None:
    1342            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1343        elif always:
    1344            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1345        elif default:
    1346            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1347        elif manual:
    1348            prop = "MANUAL"
    1349        elif never:
    1350            prop = "NEVER"
    1351        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1352
    1353    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1354        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1355        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1356        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1357        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1358
    1359        for_ = ""
    1360        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
    1361            for_ = " FOR ALL"
    1362        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
    1363            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
    1364        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
    1365            for_ = " FOR NONE"
    1366        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
    1367
    1368    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1369        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1370            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1371        if expression.this:
    1372            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1373            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1374            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1375
    1376        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1377        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1378        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1379
    1380    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1381        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1382
    1383        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1384        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1385            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1386        else:
    1387            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1388
    1389        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1390
    1391    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1392        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1393        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1394        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1395        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1396        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1397        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1398        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1399
    1400    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1401        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1402        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1403        statistics_sql = ""
    1404        if statistics is not None:
    1405            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1406        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1407
    1408    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1409        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1410
    1411        if expression.this:
    1412            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1413            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1414
    1415            if expression.expression:
    1416                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1417                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1418
    1419            sql = f"{sql})"
    1420
    1421        return f"{sql})"
    1422
    1423    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1424        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1425
    1426        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1427            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1428        else:
    1429            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1430
    1431        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1432        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1433        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1434
    1435        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1436
    1437        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1438        partition_sql = (
    1439            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
    1440        )
    1441        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1442        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1443        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1444        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1445        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1446        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1447
    1448        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1449            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
    1450        else:
    1451            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
    1452
    1453        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1454        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1455
    1456    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1457        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1458            expression,
    1459            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
    1460        )
    1461
    1462    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1463        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1464
    1465    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1467
    1468    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1470        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1472        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1473        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1474
    1475    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1476        return expression.name
    1477
    1478    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1479        return expression.name
    1480
    1481    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1482        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1483        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1484        if constraint:
    1485            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
    1486        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
    1487        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
    1488        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
    1489        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1490        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1491        if expressions:
    1492            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1493        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
    1494
    1495    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1496        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1497
    1498    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1499        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
    1500        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1501        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
    1502        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1503        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
    1504        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1505        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
    1506        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1507        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
    1508        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1509        null = expression.args.get("null")
    1510        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1511        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1512
    1513    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1514        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1515
    1516    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1517        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1518        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1519        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1520        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1521
    1522    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1525        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1526        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1527
    1528    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1529        table = ".".join(
    1530            self.sql(part)
    1531            for part in (
    1532                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1533                expression.args.get("db"),
    1534                expression.args.get("this"),
    1535            )
    1536            if part is not None
    1537        )
    1538
    1539        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1540        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1542        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1543        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1544        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1545        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1546        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1547        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
    1548        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1549
    1550        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1551        if file_format:
    1552            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1553            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1554            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1555
    1556        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1557        if ordinality:
    1558            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1559            alias = ""
    1560
    1561        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1562        if when:
    1563            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1564
    1565        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1566
    1567    def tablesample_sql(
    1568        self,
    1569        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1570        sep: str = " AS ",
    1571        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1572    ) -> str:
    1573        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1574            table = expression.this.copy()
    1575            table.set("alias", None)
    1576            this = self.sql(table)
    1577            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1578        else:
    1579            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1580            alias = ""
    1581
    1582        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1583        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1584        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1585        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1586        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1587        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1588        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1589        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1590        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1591
    1592        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1593        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1594            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1595
    1596        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1597        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1598            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1599
    1600        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1601        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1602            expr = f"({expr})"
    1603
    1604        return (
    1605            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1606        )
    1607
    1608    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1609        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1610
    1611        if expression.this:
    1612            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1613            if not expressions:
    1614                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1615
    1616            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1617            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1618            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1619            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1620            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1621
    1622        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1623        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1624        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1625        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1626        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1627        if include_nulls is not None:
    1628            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1629        else:
    1630            nulls = ""
    1631        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1632
    1633    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1634        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1635        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1636        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1637        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1638
    1639    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1640        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1641
    1642    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1644        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1645        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1646        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1647        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1648        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1649        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1650        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1651            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1652        else:
    1653            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1654        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1655        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1656
    1657    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
    1658        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1659        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1660            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1661            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1662            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1663            values = (
    1664                f"({values})"
    1665                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1666                else values
    1667            )
    1668            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1669
    1670        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1671        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1672        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1673
    1674        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
    1675
    1676        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1677            row = tup.expressions
    1678
    1679            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1680                row = [
    1681                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1682                ]
    1683
    1684            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1685
    1686        if self.pretty:
    1687            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1688            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1689            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1690            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1691            return self.subquery_sql(
    1692                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
    1693            )
    1694
    1695        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1696        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1697        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1698
    1699    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1700        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1701
    1702    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1703        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1704        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1705        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1706
    1707    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1708        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1709
    1710    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1711        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
    1712
    1713        if expression.args.get("all"):
    1714            return f"{group_by} ALL"
    1715
    1716        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1717        grouping_sets = (
    1718            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1719        )
    1720
    1721        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1722        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1723            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1724        else:
    1725            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1726            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1727
    1728        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1729        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1730            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1731        else:
    1732            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1733            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1734
    1735        groupings = csv(
    1736            grouping_sets,
    1737            cube_sql,
    1738            rollup_sql,
    1739            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1740            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1741        )
    1742
    1743        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1744            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1745
    1746        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1747
    1748    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1749        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1750        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1751
    1752    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1753        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1754        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1755        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1756        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
    1757        return start + connect
    1758
    1759    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1760        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1761
    1762    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1763        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1764            side = None
    1765        else:
    1766            side = expression.side
    1767
    1768        op_sql = " ".join(
    1769            op
    1770            for op in (
    1771                expression.method,
    1772                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1773                side,
    1774                expression.kind,
    1775                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1776            )
    1777            if op
    1778        )
    1779        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1780        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1781
    1782        if not on_sql and using:
    1783            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1784
    1785        this = expression.this
    1786        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1787
    1788        if on_sql:
    1789            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1790            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1791            if using:
    1792                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1793            else:
    1794                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1795        elif not op_sql:
    1796            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1797                return f" {this_sql}"
    1798
    1799            return f", {this_sql}"
    1800
    1801        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1802        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
    1803
    1804    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1805        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1806        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1807        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1808
    1809    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1810        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1811
    1812        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1813        if cross_apply is True:
    1814            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1815        elif cross_apply is False:
    1816            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1817        else:
    1818            op = ""
    1819
    1820        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1821
    1822    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1824
    1825        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1826            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1827            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1828            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1829            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1830            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1831            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1832
    1833        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1834        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1835        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1836
    1837    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1839
    1840        args = [
    1841            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1842            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1843            if e
    1844        ]
    1845
    1846        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1847        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1848        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1849        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1850
    1851        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1852
    1853    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1855        value = expression.expression
    1856        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1858        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1859        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1860
    1861    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1863        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1865        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1866        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1867        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1868        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1869        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1870
    1871    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1872        expressions = (
    1873            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1874        )
    1875        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1876        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1877
    1878    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1879        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1880
    1881    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1882        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1883            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1884            return ""
    1885
    1886        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    1887        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1888        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1889        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    1890
    1891        if wait is not None:
    1892            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    1893                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    1894            else:
    1895                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    1896
    1897        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    1898
    1899    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    1900        text = expression.this or ""
    1901        if expression.is_string:
    1902            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1903        return text
    1904
    1905    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
    1906        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
    1907        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
    1908            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
    1909        elif self.pretty:
    1910            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    1911        return text
    1912
    1913    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    1914        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1915        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    1916        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    1917        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1918        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1919        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1920        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1921        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1922        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    1923        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    1924        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    1925
    1926    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    1927        return "NULL"
    1928
    1929    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    1930        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    1931
    1932    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    1933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1934        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    1935        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    1936        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    1937        interpolated_values = [
    1938            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    1939            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    1940        ]
    1941        interpolate = (
    1942            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    1943        )
    1944        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    1945
    1946    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    1947        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1948        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    1949        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    1950        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    1951        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    1952        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    1953        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    1954
    1955    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    1956        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    1957
    1958    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    1959        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    1960
    1961    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    1962        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    1963
    1964    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    1965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1966        asc = not desc
    1967
    1968        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    1969        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    1970        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    1971        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    1972        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    1973
    1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1975
    1976        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    1977        nulls_sort_change = ""
    1978        if nulls_first and (
    1979            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    1980        ):
    1981            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    1982        elif (
    1983            nulls_last
    1984            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    1985            and not nulls_are_last
    1986        ):
    1987            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    1988
    1989        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    1990        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    1991            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    1992            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    1993                self.unsupported(
    1994                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    1995                )
    1996                nulls_sort_change = ""
    1997            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    1998                if expression.this.is_int:
    1999                    self.unsupported(
    2000                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2001                    )
    2002                else:
    2003                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2004                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2005                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2006
    2007        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2008        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2009
    2010        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2011
    2012    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2013        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2014        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2015        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2016        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2017        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2018        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2019        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2020        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2021        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2022        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2023        definition_sqls = [
    2024            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2025            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2026        ]
    2027        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2028        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2029        body = "".join(
    2030            (
    2031                partition,
    2032                order,
    2033                measures,
    2034                rows,
    2035                after,
    2036                pattern,
    2037                define,
    2038            )
    2039        )
    2040        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2041        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2042        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2043
    2044    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2045        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
    2046
    2047        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
    2048        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2049
    2050        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2051            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2052        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2053            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2054
    2055        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
    2056
    2057        offset_limit_modifiers = (
    2058            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
    2059            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
    2060            else []
    2061        )
    2062
    2063        return csv(
    2064            *sqls,
    2065            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2066            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2067            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2068            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2069            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2070            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2071            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2072            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
    2073            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2074            *offset_limit_modifiers,
    2075            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2076            sep="",
    2077        )
    2078
    2079    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2080        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2081    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2082        return [
    2083            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2084            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2085        ]
    2086
    2087    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2088        return [
    2089            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
    2090            (
    2091                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
    2092                if expression.args.get("windows")
    2093                else ""
    2094            ),
    2095            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
    2096            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
    2097            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
    2098        ]
    2099
    2100    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2101        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2102        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2103        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2104
    2105    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2106        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2107        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2108            into.pop()
    2109
    2110        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2111        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2112        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2114        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2115        top = (
    2116            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2117            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2118            else ""
    2119        )
    2120
    2121        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2122
    2123        if kind:
    2124            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2125                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2126            else:
    2127                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2128                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2129                        sqls=[
    2130                            self.sql(
    2131                                exp.Struct(
    2132                                    expressions=[
    2133                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
    2134                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
    2135                                        )
    2136                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2137                                    ]
    2138                                )
    2139                            )
    2140                        ]
    2141                    )
    2142                kind = ""
    2143
    2144        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2145        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2146        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2147        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2148        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2149            expression,
    2150            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2151            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2152            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2153        )
    2154
    2155        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2156
    2157        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2158            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2159                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2160            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2161                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2162            else:
    2163                table_kind = ""
    2164            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2165
    2166        return sql
    2167
    2168    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2170        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2171        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2172
    2173    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2174        if expression.expressions:
    2175            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2176        return ""
    2177
    2178    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2179        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2180        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2181        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2182        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2183        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2184
    2185    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2187        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2188
    2189    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2191        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2192        if kind:
    2193            kind = f"{kind}."
    2194        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2195
    2196    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2197        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
    2198
    2199    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2200        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2201        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2202
    2203        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2204        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2205
    2206        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2208
    2209    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2210        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2211        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2212
    2213    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2214        return self.prepend_ctes(
    2215            expression,
    2216            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
    2217        )
    2218
    2219    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2220        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2221        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2222        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2223        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2224
    2225    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2226        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2227
    2228        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2229        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2230
    2231        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2232            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2233                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2234
    2235        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2236            columns = alias.columns
    2237            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2238        else:
    2239            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2240
    2241        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2242        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2243            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2244        else:
    2245            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2246                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2247            elif offset:
    2248                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2249            else:
    2250                suffix = alias
    2251
    2252        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2253
    2254    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2255        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2256        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2257
    2258    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2260        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2261        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2262        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2263        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2264        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2265        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2266
    2267        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2268
    2269        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2270        if first is None:
    2271            first = ""
    2272        else:
    2273            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2274
    2275        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2276            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2277
    2278        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2279        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2280
    2281    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2282        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2283        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2284
    2285    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2286        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2287        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2288        end = (
    2289            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2290            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2291        )
    2292        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2293
    2294    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2295        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2296        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2297        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2298
    2299    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2300        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2301        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2302        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2303        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2304
    2305    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2306        expressions = apply_index_offset(
    2307            expression.this,
    2308            expression.expressions,
    2309            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2310        )
    2311        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2312        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2313
    2314    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2315        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2316
    2317    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2319        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
    2320            this = self.wrap(this)
    2321        return f"ANY {this}"
    2322
    2323    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2324        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2325
    2326    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2328        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2329
    2330        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2331            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2332            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2333
    2334        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2335
    2336        if default:
    2337            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2338
    2339        statements.append("END")
    2340
    2341        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
    2342            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2343
    2344        return " ".join(statements)
    2345
    2346    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2348        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2349        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2350
    2351    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2352        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2353        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2354        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2355
    2356    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2358        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2359        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2360
    2361    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2362        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2363
    2364        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2365            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2366        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2367            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2368        else:
    2369            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2370
    2371    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2372        args = expression.expressions
    2373        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2374            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2375
    2376        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2377            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
    2378
    2379        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2380            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2381
    2382        return args
    2383
    2384    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2385        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2386
    2387        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2388        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2389            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2390
    2391        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2392
    2393    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2394        return self.func(
    2395            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2396        )
    2397
    2398    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2399        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2400        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2401
    2402    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2403        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2404        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2405        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2406        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2407        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2408        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2409        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2410        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2411
    2412    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2413        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2414        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2415        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2416        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2417
    2418    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2419        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2420
    2421    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2422        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2423        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2424        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2425
    2426    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2427        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2428
    2429    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2430        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2431        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2432
    2433    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2434        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2435            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2436            if not callable(transform):
    2437                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2438                return ""
    2439
    2440            return transform(self, expression)
    2441
    2442        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2443            return str(expression)
    2444
    2445        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2446            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2447            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2448        else:
    2449            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2450            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2451
    2452        return escaped
    2453
    2454    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2456
    2457    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2458        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2459        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2460
    2461        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2462        if unique_keys is not None:
    2463            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2464        else:
    2465            unique_keys = ""
    2466
    2467        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2468        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2469        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2470        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2471
    2472        return self.func(
    2473            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2474            *expression.expressions,
    2475            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2476        )
    2477
    2478    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2479        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2480
    2481    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2482        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2483        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2484        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2485        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2486        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2487        return self.func(
    2488            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2489        )
    2490
    2491    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2493        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2494        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2495        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2496        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2497        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2498        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2499        return self.func(
    2500            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2501            this,
    2502            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2503        )
    2504
    2505    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2506        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2507        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2508        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2509
    2510        if nested_schema:
    2511            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2512
    2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2515        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2516        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2517
    2518    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2519        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2520
    2521    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2522        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2523        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2524        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2525        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2526        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2527        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2528        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2529        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2530        return self.func(
    2531            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2532        )
    2533
    2534    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2536        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2537        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2538        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2539        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2540        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2541
    2542    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2544        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2545        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2546        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2547        with_ = (
    2548            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2549            if expressions
    2550            else ""
    2551        )
    2552        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2553
    2554    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2555        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2556        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2557        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2558        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2559
    2560        if query:
    2561            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
    2562        elif unnest:
    2563            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2564        elif field:
    2565            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2566        else:
    2567            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2568
    2569        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2570
    2571    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2572        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2573
    2574    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2575        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2576        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2577            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2578        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2579
    2580        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2581            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2582            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2583
    2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2585        if this:
    2586            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2587            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2588
    2589        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2590
    2591    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2592        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2593
    2594    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2596        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2597        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2598        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2599        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2600        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2601
    2602    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2603        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
    2604
    2605    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2606        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
    2607            sql = self.wrap(expression)
    2608        else:
    2609            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2610            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2611
    2612        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2613
    2614    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2615        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2616        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2617        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2618        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2619
    2620    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2621        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2622
    2623    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2624        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2625        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2626        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2627
    2628    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2629        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2630        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2631
    2632        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2633            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2634        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2635            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2636
    2637        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2638
    2639    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2641
    2642    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2644        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2645        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2646
    2647    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2649        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2650        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2651
    2652    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2654        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2655        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2656
    2657    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2658        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2659
    2660    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
    2661        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
    2662
    2663    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
    2664        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
    2665
    2666    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
    2667        if not self.pretty:
    2668            return self.binary(expression, op)
    2669
    2670        sqls = tuple(
    2671            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
    2672            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
    2673        )
    2674
    2675        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
    2676        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
    2677
    2678    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2679        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2680
    2681    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2682        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2683
    2684    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2685        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2686
    2687    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2688        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2689
    2690    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2691        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2692
    2693    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2694        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2695
    2696    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2697        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2698        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2699        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2700        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2701        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
    2702
    2703    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2704        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2705        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2706
    2707    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2708        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2709
    2710    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2711        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2712            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2713        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2714
    2715    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2717
    2718    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2720        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2721        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2722        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2723        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2724
    2725    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2727        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2728        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2729        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2730        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2731        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2732        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2733        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2734        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2735
    2736    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2737        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2738        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2739        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2740        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2741
    2742        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2743            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2744
    2745        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2746
    2747    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2748        return "BEGIN"
    2749
    2750    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2751        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2752        if chain is not None:
    2753            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2754
    2755        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2756
    2757    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2758        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2759        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2760        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2761
    2762    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2764
    2765        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2766        if dtype:
    2767            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2768            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2769            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2770            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2771            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2772
    2773        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2774        if default:
    2775            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2776
    2777        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2778        if comment:
    2779            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2780
    2781        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2782            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2783
    2784        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2785
    2786    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2787        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2788            # Remove db from tables
    2789            expression = expression.transform(
    2790                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2791            )
    2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2793        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2794
    2795    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2796        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2797        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2798        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2799        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2800
    2801    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2802        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2803
    2804        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2805            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2806        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2807            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2808        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2809            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2810        else:
    2811            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2812
    2813        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2814        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2815        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
    2816
    2817    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2818        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    2819            return self.expressions(
    2820                expression,
    2821                key="actions",
    2822                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    2823            )
    2824        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    2825
    2826    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    2827        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2828        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2829        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    2830
    2831    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2833        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2834        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
    2835
    2836        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
    2837        if enforced is not None:
    2838            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
    2839
    2840        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
    2841
    2842    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    2843        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2844
    2845        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    2846            case = exp.case()
    2847            for arg in expression.expressions:
    2848                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    2849            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    2850
    2851        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    2852
    2853        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2854        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    2855        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    2856
    2857    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    2858        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    2859
    2860    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    2861        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    2862
    2863    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    2864        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC:
    2865            this = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    2866            if this:
    2867                sql = self.sql(this)
    2868                sql = sql[:-1] + f" {text})"
    2869                return sql
    2870
    2871        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    2872
    2873    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    2874        return self.sql(
    2875            exp.Cast(
    2876                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    2877                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    2878            )
    2879        )
    2880
    2881    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    2882        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2883            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
    2884        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    2885
    2886    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    2887        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    2888
    2889        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2890            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    2891
    2892        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    2893            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
    2894                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
    2895            ):
    2896                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    2897
    2898        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    2899            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    2900                return self.sql(
    2901                    exp.cast(
    2902                        l / r,
    2903                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    2904                    )
    2905                )
    2906
    2907        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    2908
    2909    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    2910        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    2911
    2912    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    2913        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    2914
    2915    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    2916        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2917
    2918    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    2919        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    2920
    2921    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    2922        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    2923
    2924    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    2925        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    2926
    2927    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    2928        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    2929
    2930    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    2931        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    2932
    2933    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    2934        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    2935
    2936    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    2937        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    2938
    2939    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    2940        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    2941
    2942    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    2943        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    2944            return self.sql(
    2945                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    2946            )
    2947        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    2948
    2949    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    2950        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    2951
    2952    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    2953        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    2954
    2955    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    2956        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    2957
    2958    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    2959        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    2960
    2961    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    2962        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    2963
    2964    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    2965        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    2966
    2967    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    2968        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    2969
    2970    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    2971        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    2972
    2973    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    2974        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    2975
    2976    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    2977        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    2978
    2979    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
    2980        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
    2981
    2982    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    2983        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    2984
    2985    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    2986        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    2987
    2988    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    2989        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    2990
    2991    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    2992        this = expression.this
    2993        expr = expression.expression
    2994
    2995        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
    2996            this, expr = expr, this
    2997
    2998        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    2999
    3000    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3001        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3002        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3004        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3005        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3006
    3007    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3008        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3009        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3010
    3011    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3012        args = []
    3013
    3014        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3015            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3016
    3017            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3018                for value in arg_value:
    3019                    args.append(value)
    3020            elif arg_value is not None:
    3021                args.append(arg_value)
    3022
    3023        if self.normalize_functions:
    3024            name = expression.sql_name()
    3025        else:
    3026            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3027
    3028        return self.func(name, *args)
    3029
    3030    def func(
    3031        self,
    3032        name: str,
    3033        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3034        prefix: str = "(",
    3035        suffix: str = ")",
    3036    ) -> str:
    3037        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3038
    3039    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3040        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3041        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
    3042            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3043        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3044
    3045    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
    3046        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
    3047
    3048    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3049        return format_time(
    3050            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3051            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3052            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3053        )
    3054
    3055    def expressions(
    3056        self,
    3057        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3058        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3059        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3060        flat: bool = False,
    3061        indent: bool = True,
    3062        skip_first: bool = False,
    3063        sep: str = ", ",
    3064        prefix: str = "",
    3065    ) -> str:
    3066        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3067
    3068        if not expressions:
    3069            return ""
    3070
    3071        if flat:
    3072            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3073
    3074        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3075
    3076        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3077        pad = " " * self.pad
    3078        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3079
    3080        result_sqls = []
    3081        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3082            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3083            if not sql:
    3084                continue
    3085
    3086            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3087
    3088            if self.pretty:
    3089                if self.leading_comma:
    3090                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3091                else:
    3092                    result_sqls.append(
    3093                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3094                    )
    3095            else:
    3096                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3097
    3098        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
    3099        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
    3100
    3101    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3102        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3103        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3104        if flat:
    3105            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3106        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3107
    3108    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3109        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3110        if not property_name:
    3111            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3112        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3113
    3114    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
    3115        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
    3116        op = self.seg(op)
    3117        return self.query_modifiers(
    3118            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3119        )
    3120
    3121    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3122        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3123
    3124    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3125        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3126
    3127    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3129        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3130        expressions = (
    3131            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3132        )
    3133        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3134
    3135    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3137        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3138        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3139
    3140    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3141        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3142
    3143    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3144        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3145        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3146        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3147        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3148
    3149        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3150        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3151            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3152            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3153                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3154        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3155            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3156                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3157            else:
    3158                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3159        else:
    3160            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3161        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3162
    3163    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3164        table = expression.this
    3165        table_alias = ""
    3166
    3167        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3168        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3169            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3170            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3171
    3172        this = self.sql(table)
    3173        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3174        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3175        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3176
    3177        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3178            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3179        )
    3180
    3181    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3182        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3183            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3184
    3185        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
    3186
    3187    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3189        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3190        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3191        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3192        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3193
    3194    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3196        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3197        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3198        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3199
    3200    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3201        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3202
    3203    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3204        return ""
    3205
    3206    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3208        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3209        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3210        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3211        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3212
    3213    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3215        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3216
    3217        if having:
    3218            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3219
    3220        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3221
    3222    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3223        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3224        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3225        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3226        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3227        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3228        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3229        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3230        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3231        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3232        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3233        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3234        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3235        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3236
    3237    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3238        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3239        if key_block_size:
    3240            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3241
    3242        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3243        if using:
    3244            return f"USING {using}"
    3245
    3246        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3247        if parser:
    3248            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3249
    3250        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3251        if comment:
    3252            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3253
    3254        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3255        if visible is not None:
    3256            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3257
    3258        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3259        if engine_attr:
    3260            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3261
    3262        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3263        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3264            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3265
    3266        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3267        return ""
    3268
    3269    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3270        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3271        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3273        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3274        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3275        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3276        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3277        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
    3278        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3279        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3280        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
    3281
    3282    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3283        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3284            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3285
    3286        case = exp.Case().when(
    3287            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3288            expression.args["true"],
    3289            copy=False,
    3290        )
    3291        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3292        if else_cond:
    3293            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3294
    3295        return self.sql(case)
    3296
    3297    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3299        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3300        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3301        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3302        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3303        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3304
    3305    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3306        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3307
    3308    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3309        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3310
    3311    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3312        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3313        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3314        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3315        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3316        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3317        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3318
    3319    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3321        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3322        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3323
    3324    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3326        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3327        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3328
    3329    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3330        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3331
    3332    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3333        arg = expression.this
    3334        if not arg.type:
    3335            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3336
    3337            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3338
    3339        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3340            return self.sql(arg)
    3341
    3342        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3343        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
    3344
    3345    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3346        this = expression.this
    3347        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3348            return self.sql(this)
    3349
    3350        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
    3351
    3352    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3353        this = expression.this
    3354        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3355
    3356        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3357            return self.sql(
    3358                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
    3359            )
    3360
    3361        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3362            return self.sql(this)
    3363
    3364        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
    3365
    3366    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3367        return self.sql(
    3368            exp.func(
    3369                "DATEDIFF",
    3370                expression.this,
    3371                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
    3372                "day",
    3373            )
    3374        )
    3375
    3376    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3377        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3378            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3379
    3380        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3381        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3382            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3383
    3384        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3385
    3386    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3387        this = expression.this
    3388        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3389            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3390            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3391
    3392        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3393            return f".{this}"
    3394
    3395        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3396        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3397
    3398    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3399        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3400        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3401
    3402    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3403        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3404            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3405
    3406            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3407
    3408        return expression
    3409
    3410    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    3411        return [
    3412            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
    3413            for value in values
    3414            if value
    3415        ]

logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator: View Source

      37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
      38    """
      39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
      40
      41    Args:
      42        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
      43            Default: False.
      44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
      45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
      46            True or 'always': Always quote.
      47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
      48        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
      49            Default: False.
      50        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
      51            Default: 2.
      52        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
      53            Default: 2.
      54        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
      55            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
      56            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
      57            False: Disables function name normalization.
      58        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
      59            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
      60        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
      61            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
      62            Default: 3
      63        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
      64            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
      65            Default: False
      66        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
      67            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
      68            line length.
      69            Default: 80
      70        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
      71            Default: True
      72    """
      73
      74    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
      75        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
      76        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      77        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      78        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
      79        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      80        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
      81        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      82        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
      83        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
      84        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
      85        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      86        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      87        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
      88        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
      89            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
      90        ),
      91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      94        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
      95        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
      96        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
      97        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
      98        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
      99        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     100        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
     101        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     102        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     103        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
     104        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
     105        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
     106        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
     107        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
     108        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
     109        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self,
     110        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
     111        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     112        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     113        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     114        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     115        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
     116        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     117        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
     118        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     119        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
     120        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
     121        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
     122        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
     123        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self,
     124        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
     125        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
     126        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: "TEMPORARY",
     127        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     128        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
     129        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
     130        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
     131        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "UPPERCASE",
     132        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
     133        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
     134        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
     135    }
     136
     137    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
     138    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
     139    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
     140
     141    # Whether or not ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
     142    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
     143    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
     144
     145    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
     146    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
     147
     148    # Always do union distinct or union all
     149    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
     150
     151    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
     152    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
     153
     154    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
     155    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
     156
     157    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
     158    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
     159
     160    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
     161    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
     162
     163    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
     164    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
     165
     166    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
     167    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
     168
     169    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
     170    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
     171
     172    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
     173    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
     174
     175    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
     176    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
     177
     178    # The string used for creating an index on a table
     179    INDEX_ON = "ON"
     180
     181    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
     182    JOIN_HINTS = True
     183
     184    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
     185    TABLE_HINTS = True
     186
     187    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
     188    QUERY_HINTS = True
     189
     190    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
     191    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
     192
     193    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
     194    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
     195
     196    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
     197    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
     198
     199    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
     200    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
     201
     202    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
     203    RETURNING_END = True
     204
     205    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
     206    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
     207
     208    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
     209    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
     210
     211    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
     212    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
     213
     214    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
     215    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
     216
     217    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
     218    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
     219
     220    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
     221    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
     222    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
     223    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
     224
     225    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
     226    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
     227
     228    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
     229    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
     230
     231    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
     232    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
     233
     234    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
     235    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
     236
     237    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
     238    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
     239
     240    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
     241    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
     242
     243    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
     244    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
     245
     246    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
     247    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
     248
     249    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
     250    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
     251
     252    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
     253    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
     254
     255    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
     256    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
     257
     258    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
     259    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
     260
     261    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
     262    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
     263
     264    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
     265    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
     266
     267    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
     268    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
     269
     270    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
     271    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
     272
     273    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
     274    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
     275
     276    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
     277    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
     278
     279    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
     280    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
     281
     282    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
     283    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
     284
     285    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
     286    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
     287
     288    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
     289    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
     290
     291    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
     292    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
     293
     294    # Whether or not the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
     295    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
     296
     297    # Whether or not the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
     298    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
     299
     300    # Whether or not DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
     301    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
     302    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
     303
     304    # Whether or not the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
     305    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
     306
     307    # Whether or not bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
     308    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
     309
     310    # Whether or not to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
     311    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
     312
     313    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
     314    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
     315
     316    TYPE_MAPPING = {
     317        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
     318        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
     319        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
     320        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
     321        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
     322        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
     323        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
     324        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
     325        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
     326    }
     327
     328    STAR_MAPPING = {
     329        "except": "EXCEPT",
     330        "replace": "REPLACE",
     331    }
     332
     333    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
     334        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
     335        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
     336        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
     337        "HOURS": "HOUR",
     338        "DAYS": "DAY",
     339        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
     340        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
     341        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
     342        "YEARS": "YEAR",
     343    }
     344
     345    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
     346
     347    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
     348
     349    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
     350
     351    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
     352        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     353        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     354        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     355        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     356        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     357        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     358        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     359        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     360        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     361        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     362        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     363        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     364        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     365        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     366        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     367        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     368        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     369        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     370        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     371        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     372        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     373        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     374        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     375        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     376        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     377        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     378        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     379        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     380        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     381        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     382        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
     383        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     384        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     385        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     386        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     387        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     388        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     389        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     390        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     391        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     392        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     393        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     394        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
     395        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     396        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     397        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     398        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     399        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     400        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     401        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     402        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     403        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     404        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     405        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     406        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     407        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     408        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     409        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     410        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     411        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     412        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     413        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     414        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     415        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     416        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
     417        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
     418        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
     419        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
     420    }
     421
     422    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
     423    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
     424
     425    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
     426    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     427        exp.Create,
     428        exp.Delete,
     429        exp.Drop,
     430        exp.From,
     431        exp.Insert,
     432        exp.Join,
     433        exp.Select,
     434        exp.Update,
     435        exp.Where,
     436        exp.With,
     437    )
     438
     439    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
     440    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     441        exp.Binary,
     442        exp.Union,
     443    )
     444
     445    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
     446    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
     447        exp.Column,
     448        exp.Literal,
     449        exp.Neg,
     450        exp.Paren,
     451    )
     452
     453    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
     454    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
     455
     456    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
     457
     458    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
     459
     460    __slots__ = (
     461        "pretty",
     462        "identify",
     463        "normalize",
     464        "pad",
     465        "_indent",
     466        "normalize_functions",
     467        "unsupported_level",
     468        "max_unsupported",
     469        "leading_comma",
     470        "max_text_width",
     471        "comments",
     472        "dialect",
     473        "unsupported_messages",
     474        "_escaped_quote_end",
     475        "_escaped_identifier_end",
     476    )
     477
     478    def __init__(
     479        self,
     480        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
     481        identify: str | bool = False,
     482        normalize: bool = False,
     483        pad: int = 2,
     484        indent: int = 2,
     485        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
     486        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
     487        max_unsupported: int = 3,
     488        leading_comma: bool = False,
     489        max_text_width: int = 80,
     490        comments: bool = True,
     491        dialect: DialectType = None,
     492    ):
     493        import sqlglot
     494        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
     495
     496        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
     497        self.identify = identify
     498        self.normalize = normalize
     499        self.pad = pad
     500        self._indent = indent
     501        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
     502        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
     503        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
     504        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
     505        self.comments = comments
     506        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
     507
     508        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
     509        self.normalize_functions = (
     510            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
     511        )
     512
     513        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
     514        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
     515            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
     516        )
     517        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
     518            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
     519        )
     520
     521    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
     522        """
     523        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
     524
     525        Args:
     526            expression: The syntax tree.
     527            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
     528                it is safer to copy.
     529
     530        Returns:
     531            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
     532        """
     533        if copy:
     534            expression = expression.copy()
     535
     536        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
     537
     538        self.unsupported_messages = []
     539        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
     540
     541        if self.pretty:
     542            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
     543
     544        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
     545            return sql
     546
     547        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
     548            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
     549                logger.warning(msg)
     550        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
     551            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
     552
     553        return sql
     554
     555    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
     556        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
     557        if (
     558            not expression.parent
     559            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
     560            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
     561        ):
     562            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
     563
     564            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
     565
     566        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
     567            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
     568
     569            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
     570
     571        return expression
     572
     573    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
     574        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
     575            raise UnsupportedError(message)
     576        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
     577
     578    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     579        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
     580
     581    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     582        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
     583
     584    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
     585        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
     586        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
     587        return comment
     588
     589    def maybe_comment(
     590        self,
     591        sql: str,
     592        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
     593        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
     594    ) -> str:
     595        comments = (
     596            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
     597            if self.comments
     598            else None
     599        )
     600
     601        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
     602            return sql
     603
     604        comments_sql = " ".join(
     605            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
     606        )
     607
     608        if not comments_sql:
     609            return sql
     610
     611        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
     612            return (
     613                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
     614                if sql[0].isspace()
     615                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     616            )
     617
     618        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
     619
     620    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
     621        this_sql = self.indent(
     622            (
     623                self.sql(expression)
     624                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
     625                else self.sql(expression, "this")
     626            ),
     627            level=1,
     628            pad=0,
     629        )
     630        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
     631
     632    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
     633        original = self.identify
     634        self.identify = False
     635        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
     636        self.identify = original
     637        return result
     638
     639    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
     640        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
     641            return name.upper()
     642        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
     643            return name.lower()
     644        return name
     645
     646    def indent(
     647        self,
     648        sql: str,
     649        level: int = 0,
     650        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
     651        skip_first: bool = False,
     652        skip_last: bool = False,
     653    ) -> str:
     654        if not self.pretty:
     655            return sql
     656
     657        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
     658        lines = sql.split("\n")
     659
     660        return "\n".join(
     661            (
     662                line
     663                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
     664                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
     665            )
     666            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
     667        )
     668
     669    def sql(
     670        self,
     671        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
     672        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
     673        comment: bool = True,
     674    ) -> str:
     675        if not expression:
     676            return ""
     677
     678        if isinstance(expression, str):
     679            return expression
     680
     681        if key:
     682            value = expression.args.get(key)
     683            if value:
     684                return self.sql(value)
     685            return ""
     686
     687        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
     688
     689        if callable(transform):
     690            sql = transform(self, expression)
     691        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
     692            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
     693
     694            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
     695                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
     696            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
     697                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
     698            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
     699                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
     700            else:
     701                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
     702        else:
     703            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
     704
     705        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
     706
     707    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
     708        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     709        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     710        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
     711
     712    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
     713        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
     714        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
     715        options = expression.args.get("options")
     716        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
     717        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     718        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
     719        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
     720        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
     721
     722    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
     723        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
     724            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     725        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
     726        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     727
     728    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
     729        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
     730
     731        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
     732            join_mark = ""
     733            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
     734
     735        column = ".".join(
     736            self.sql(part)
     737            for part in (
     738                expression.args.get("catalog"),
     739                expression.args.get("db"),
     740                expression.args.get("table"),
     741                expression.args.get("this"),
     742            )
     743            if part
     744        )
     745
     746        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
     747
     748    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
     749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     750        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     751        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     752        return f"{position}{this}"
     753
     754    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
     755        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
     756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     757        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
     758        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     759        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
     760        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
     761        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
     762        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
     763
     764        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
     765            kind = ""
     766
     767        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
     768
     769    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
     770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     771        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
     772        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
     773
     774    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
     775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     776        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
     777            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
     778        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
     779            persisted = " PERSISTED"
     780        else:
     781            persisted = ""
     782        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
     783
     784    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
     785        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
     786
     787    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
     788        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
     789            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
     790        else:
     791            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     792
     793        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
     794
     795    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
     796        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
     797    ) -> str:
     798        this = ""
     799        if expression.this is not None:
     800            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
     801            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
     802
     803        start = expression.args.get("start")
     804        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
     805        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
     806        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
     807        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
     808        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
     809        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
     810        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
     811        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
     812        cycle_sql = ""
     813
     814        if cycle is not None:
     815            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
     816            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
     817
     818        sequence_opts = ""
     819        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
     820            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
     821            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
     822
     823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     824        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
     825
     826        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
     827
     828    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
     829        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
     830    ) -> str:
     831        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
     832        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
     833        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
     834
     835    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
     836        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
     837    ) -> str:
     838        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
     839
     840    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
     841        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
     842
     843    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
     844        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     845
     846    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
     847        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
     848        if desc is not None:
     849            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
     850        return "PRIMARY KEY"
     851
     852    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
     853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     854        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
     855        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
     856        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
     857        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
     858
     859    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
     860        return self.sql(expression, "this")
     861
     862    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
     863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
     864        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
     865        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
     866
     867        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
     868
     869        properties_sql = ""
     870        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
     871            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
     872        ):
     873            properties_sql = self.sql(
     874                exp.Properties(
     875                    expressions=[
     876                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
     877                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
     878                    ]
     879                )
     880            )
     881
     882        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
     883        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
     884
     885        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
     886        if expression_sql:
     887            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
     888
     889            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
     890                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
     891                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
     892                        exp.Properties(
     893                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
     894                        ),
     895                        wrapped=False,
     896                    )
     897                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
     898                else:
     899                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
     900
     901        postindex_props_sql = ""
     902        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
     903            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
     904                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
     905                wrapped=False,
     906                prefix=" ",
     907            )
     908
     909        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
     910        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
     911        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
     912
     913        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
     914        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
     915
     916        postcreate_props_sql = ""
     917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
     918            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
     919                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
     920                sep=" ",
     921                prefix=" ",
     922                wrapped=False,
     923            )
     924
     925        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
     926
     927        postexpression_props_sql = ""
     928        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
     929            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
     930                exp.Properties(
     931                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
     932                ),
     933                sep=" ",
     934                prefix=" ",
     935                wrapped=False,
     936            )
     937
     938        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
     939        no_schema_binding = (
     940            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
     941        )
     942
     943        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
     944        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
     945
     946        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
     947        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
     948
     949    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
     950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     951        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
     952        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
     953        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
     954
     955    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
     956        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
     957        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
     958
     959    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
     960        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
     961        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
     962
     963    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
     964        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
     965        if with_:
     966            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
     967        return sql
     968
     969    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
     970        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
     971        recursive = (
     972            "RECURSIVE "
     973            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
     974            else ""
     975        )
     976
     977        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
     978
     979    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
     980        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
     981        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
     982
     983    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
     984        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
     985        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
     986        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
     987
     988        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
     989            columns = ""
     990            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
     991
     992        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
     993            alias = "_t"
     994
     995        return f"{alias}{columns}"
     996
     997    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
     998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     999        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1000            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1001        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
    1002
    1003    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1005        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1006            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1007        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
    1008
    1009    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1011        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1012            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1013        return this
    1014
    1015    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1017        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1018
    1019        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1020            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1021            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1022
    1023        if escape:
    1024            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1025        else:
    1026            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1027
    1028        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1029        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1030
    1031    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1032        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
    1033        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1034
    1035    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1037        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1038        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1039        return f"{this}{specifier}"
    1040
    1041    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1042        type_value = expression.this
    1043
    1044        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1045            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1046        else:
    1047            type_sql = (
    1048                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1049                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1050                else type_value
    1051            )
    1052
    1053        nested = ""
    1054        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1055        values = ""
    1056
    1057        if interior:
    1058            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1059                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1060                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1061                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1062                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1063                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1064            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1065                nested = f" {interior}"
    1066            else:
    1067                nested = f"({interior})"
    1068
    1069        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1070        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1071            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1072            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1073        ):
    1074            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1075
    1076        return type_sql
    1077
    1078    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1079        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1080        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1081        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1082        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
    1083
    1084    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1086        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1087        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1088        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1089        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1090        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1091        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1092        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1093        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1094        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1095            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1096        else:
    1097            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1098        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
    1099
    1100    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1102        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1103        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1104        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1105        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1106        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1107        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1108        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1109        return (
    1110            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1111        )
    1112
    1113    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1114        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1115            expression,
    1116            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
    1117        )
    1118
    1119    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1120        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1121
    1122    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1123        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1124        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1125        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1126        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1127        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1128            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1129        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1130        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
    1131
    1132    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1133        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1134            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1135            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1136            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1137
    1138        agg = expression.this
    1139        agg_arg = agg.this
    1140        cond = expression.expression.this
    1141        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1142        return self.sql(agg)
    1143
    1144    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1145        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1146            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1147            return ""
    1148
    1149        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
    1150
    1151    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1152        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1153        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1154        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1155        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1156        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1157        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1158        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1159        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1160        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1161        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1162        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1163        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1164        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1165        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1166        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1167        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1168        if include:
    1169            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1170        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
    1171
    1172    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1173        text = expression.name
    1174        lower = text.lower()
    1175        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1176        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1177        if (
    1178            expression.quoted
    1179            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1180            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1181            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1182        ):
    1183            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1184        return text
    1185
    1186    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1187        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1188        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1189        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1190        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1191        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
    1192
    1193    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1194        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1195        return f"{prefix}{string}"
    1196
    1197    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1198        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1199
    1200    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1201        root_properties = []
    1202        with_properties = []
    1203
    1204        for p in expression.expressions:
    1205            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1206            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1207                with_properties.append(p)
    1208            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1209                root_properties.append(p)
    1210
    1211        return self.root_properties(
    1212            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1213        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
    1214
    1215    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1216        if properties.expressions:
    1217            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1218        return ""
    1219
    1220    def properties(
    1221        self,
    1222        properties: exp.Properties,
    1223        prefix: str = "",
    1224        sep: str = ", ",
    1225        suffix: str = "",
    1226        wrapped: bool = True,
    1227    ) -> str:
    1228        if properties.expressions:
    1229            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1230            if expressions:
    1231                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1232                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1233        return ""
    1234
    1235    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1236        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
    1237
    1238    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1239        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1240        for p in properties.expressions:
    1241            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1242            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1243                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1244            else:
    1245                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1246
    1247        return properties_locs
    1248
    1249    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1250        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1251            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1252        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
    1253
    1254    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1255        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1256        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1257            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1258
    1259        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1260        if not property_name:
    1261            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1262
    1263        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1264
    1265    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1266        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1267            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1268            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1269
    1270            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1271            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1272                like = f"({like})"
    1273
    1274            return like
    1275
    1276        if expression.expressions:
    1277            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1278
    1279        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1280        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
    1281
    1282    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1283        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1284        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1285        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
    1286
    1287    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1288        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1289        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1290        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1291        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1292        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1293        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1294        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
    1295
    1296    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1297        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1298        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1299        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
    1300
    1301    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1302        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1303            property = "DEFAULT"
    1304        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1305            property = "ON"
    1306        else:
    1307            property = "OFF"
    1308        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
    1309
    1310    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1311        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1312            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1313        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1314            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1315
    1316        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1317        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
    1318
    1319    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1320        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1321        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1322        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1323        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1324            if default:
    1325                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1326            elif minimum:
    1327                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1328            else:
    1329                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1330            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1331        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1332        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1333        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
    1334
    1335    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1336        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1337        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1338        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1339        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1340        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1341
    1342        if autotemp is not None:
    1343            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1344        elif always:
    1345            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1346        elif default:
    1347            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1348        elif manual:
    1349            prop = "MANUAL"
    1350        elif never:
    1351            prop = "NEVER"
    1352        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
    1353
    1354    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1355        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1356        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1357        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1358        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1359
    1360        for_ = ""
    1361        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
    1362            for_ = " FOR ALL"
    1363        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
    1364            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
    1365        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
    1366            for_ = " FOR NONE"
    1367        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
    1368
    1369    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1370        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1371            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1372        if expression.this:
    1373            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1374            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1375            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1376
    1377        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1378        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1379        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
    1380
    1381    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1383
    1384        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1385        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1386            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1387        else:
    1388            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1389
    1390        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
    1391
    1392    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1393        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1394        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1395        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1396        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1397        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1398        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1399        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
    1400
    1401    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1402        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1403        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1404        statistics_sql = ""
    1405        if statistics is not None:
    1406            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1407        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
    1408
    1409    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1410        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1411
    1412        if expression.this:
    1413            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1414            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1415
    1416            if expression.expression:
    1417                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1418                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1419
    1420            sql = f"{sql})"
    1421
    1422        return f"{sql})"
    1423
    1424    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1425        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1426
    1427        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1428            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1429        else:
    1430            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1431
    1432        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1433        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1434        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1435
    1436        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1437
    1438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1439        partition_sql = (
    1440            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
    1441        )
    1442        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1443        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1444        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1445        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1446        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1447        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1448
    1449        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1450            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
    1451        else:
    1452            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
    1453
    1454        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1455        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1456
    1457    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1458        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1459            expression,
    1460            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
    1461        )
    1462
    1463    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1464        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
    1465
    1466    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1468
    1469    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1471        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1473        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1474        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
    1475
    1476    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1477        return expression.name
    1478
    1479    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1480        return expression.name
    1481
    1482    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1483        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1484        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1485        if constraint:
    1486            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
    1487        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
    1488        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
    1489        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
    1490        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1491        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1492        if expressions:
    1493            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1494        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
    1495
    1496    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1497        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    1498
    1499    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1500        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
    1501        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1502        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
    1503        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1504        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
    1505        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1506        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
    1507        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1508        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
    1509        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1510        null = expression.args.get("null")
    1511        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1512        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
    1513
    1514    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1515        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1516
    1517    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1518        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1519        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1520        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1521        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1522
    1523    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1526        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1527        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
    1528
    1529    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1530        table = ".".join(
    1531            self.sql(part)
    1532            for part in (
    1533                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1534                expression.args.get("db"),
    1535                expression.args.get("this"),
    1536            )
    1537            if part is not None
    1538        )
    1539
    1540        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1541        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1543        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1544        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1545        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1546        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1547        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1548        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
    1549        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1550
    1551        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1552        if file_format:
    1553            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1554            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1555            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1556
    1557        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1558        if ordinality:
    1559            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1560            alias = ""
    1561
    1562        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1563        if when:
    1564            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1565
    1566        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
    1567
    1568    def tablesample_sql(
    1569        self,
    1570        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1571        sep: str = " AS ",
    1572        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1573    ) -> str:
    1574        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1575            table = expression.this.copy()
    1576            table.set("alias", None)
    1577            this = self.sql(table)
    1578            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1579        else:
    1580            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1581            alias = ""
    1582
    1583        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1584        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1585        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1586        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1587        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1588        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1589        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1590        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1591        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1592
    1593        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1594        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1595            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1596
    1597        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1598        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1599            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1600
    1601        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1602        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1603            expr = f"({expr})"
    1604
    1605        return (
    1606            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1607        )
    1608
    1609    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1611
    1612        if expression.this:
    1613            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1614            if not expressions:
    1615                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1616
    1617            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1618            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1619            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1620            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1621            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1622
    1623        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1624        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1625        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1626        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1627        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1628        if include_nulls is not None:
    1629            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1630        else:
    1631            nulls = ""
    1632        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
    1633
    1634    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1635        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1636        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1637        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1638        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
    1639
    1640    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1641        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    1642
    1643    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1645        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1646        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1647        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1648        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1649        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1650        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1651        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1652            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1653        else:
    1654            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1655        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1656        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    1657
    1658    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
    1659        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1660        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1661            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1662            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1663            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1664            values = (
    1665                f"({values})"
    1666                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1667                else values
    1668            )
    1669            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1670
    1671        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1672        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1673        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1674
    1675        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
    1676
    1677        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1678            row = tup.expressions
    1679
    1680            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1681                row = [
    1682                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1683                ]
    1684
    1685            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1686
    1687        if self.pretty:
    1688            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1689            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1690            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1691            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1692            return self.subquery_sql(
    1693                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
    1694            )
    1695
    1696        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1697        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1698        return f"({unions}){alias}"
    1699
    1700    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1701        return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1702
    1703    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1704        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1705        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1706        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1707
    1708    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1709        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1710
    1711    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1712        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
    1713
    1714        if expression.args.get("all"):
    1715            return f"{group_by} ALL"
    1716
    1717        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1718        grouping_sets = (
    1719            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1720        )
    1721
    1722        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1723        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1724            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1725        else:
    1726            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1727            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1728
    1729        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1730        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1731            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1732        else:
    1733            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1734            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1735
    1736        groupings = csv(
    1737            grouping_sets,
    1738            cube_sql,
    1739            rollup_sql,
    1740            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1741            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1742        )
    1743
    1744        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1745            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1746
    1747        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
    1748
    1749    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1750        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1751        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    1752
    1753    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1754        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1755        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1756        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1757        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
    1758        return start + connect
    1759
    1760    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1761        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1762
    1763    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1764        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1765            side = None
    1766        else:
    1767            side = expression.side
    1768
    1769        op_sql = " ".join(
    1770            op
    1771            for op in (
    1772                expression.method,
    1773                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1774                side,
    1775                expression.kind,
    1776                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1777            )
    1778            if op
    1779        )
    1780        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1781        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1782
    1783        if not on_sql and using:
    1784            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1785
    1786        this = expression.this
    1787        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1788
    1789        if on_sql:
    1790            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1791            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1792            if using:
    1793                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1794            else:
    1795                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1796        elif not op_sql:
    1797            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1798                return f" {this_sql}"
    1799
    1800            return f", {this_sql}"
    1801
    1802        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1803        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
    1804
    1805    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1806        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1807        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1808        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1809
    1810    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1811        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1812
    1813        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1814        if cross_apply is True:
    1815            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1816        elif cross_apply is False:
    1817            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1818        else:
    1819            op = ""
    1820
    1821        return f"{op}LATERAL"
    1822
    1823    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1825
    1826        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1827            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1828            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1829            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1830            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1831            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1832            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1833
    1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1835        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1836        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
    1837
    1838    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1840
    1841        args = [
    1842            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1843            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1844            if e
    1845        ]
    1846
    1847        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1848        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1849        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1850        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1851
    1852        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
    1853
    1854    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1856        value = expression.expression
    1857        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1859        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1860        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
    1861
    1862    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1864        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1867        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1868        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1869        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1870        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
    1871
    1872    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1873        expressions = (
    1874            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1875        )
    1876        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1877        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
    1878
    1879    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1880        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1881
    1882    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1883        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1884            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1885            return ""
    1886
    1887        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    1888        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1889        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1890        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    1891
    1892        if wait is not None:
    1893            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    1894                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    1895            else:
    1896                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    1897
    1898        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
    1899
    1900    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    1901        text = expression.this or ""
    1902        if expression.is_string:
    1903            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1904        return text
    1905
    1906    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
    1907        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
    1908        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
    1909            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
    1910        elif self.pretty:
    1911            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    1912        return text
    1913
    1914    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    1915        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1916        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    1917        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    1918        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1919        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1920        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1921        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1922        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1923        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    1924        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    1925        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
    1926
    1927    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    1928        return "NULL"
    1929
    1930    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    1931        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
    1932
    1933    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1935        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    1936        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    1937        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    1938        interpolated_values = [
    1939            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    1940            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    1941        ]
    1942        interpolate = (
    1943            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    1944        )
    1945        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
    1946
    1947    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    1948        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1949        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    1950        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    1951        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    1952        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    1953        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    1954        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
    1955
    1956    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    1957        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
    1958
    1959    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    1960        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
    1961
    1962    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    1963        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
    1964
    1965    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    1966        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1967        asc = not desc
    1968
    1969        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    1970        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    1971        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    1972        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    1973        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    1974
    1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1976
    1977        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    1978        nulls_sort_change = ""
    1979        if nulls_first and (
    1980            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    1981        ):
    1982            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    1983        elif (
    1984            nulls_last
    1985            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    1986            and not nulls_are_last
    1987        ):
    1988            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    1989
    1990        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    1991        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    1992            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    1993            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    1994                self.unsupported(
    1995                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    1996                )
    1997                nulls_sort_change = ""
    1998            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    1999                if expression.this.is_int:
    2000                    self.unsupported(
    2001                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2002                    )
    2003                else:
    2004                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2005                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2006                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2007
    2008        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2009        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2010
    2011        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
    2012
    2013    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2014        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2015        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2016        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2017        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2018        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2019        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2020        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2021        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2022        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2023        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2024        definition_sqls = [
    2025            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2026            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2027        ]
    2028        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2029        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2030        body = "".join(
    2031            (
    2032                partition,
    2033                order,
    2034                measures,
    2035                rows,
    2036                after,
    2037                pattern,
    2038                define,
    2039            )
    2040        )
    2041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2042        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2043        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
    2044
    2045    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2046        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
    2047
    2048        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
    2049        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2050
    2051        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2052            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2053        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2054            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2055
    2056        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
    2057
    2058        offset_limit_modifiers = (
    2059            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
    2060            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
    2061            else []
    2062        )
    2063
    2064        return csv(
    2065            *sqls,
    2066            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2067            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2068            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2069            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2070            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2071            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2072            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2073            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
    2074            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2075            *offset_limit_modifiers,
    2076            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2077            sep="",
    2078        )
    2079
    2080    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2081        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2082    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2083        return [
    2084            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2085            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2086        ]
    2087
    2088    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2089        return [
    2090            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
    2091            (
    2092                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
    2093                if expression.args.get("windows")
    2094                else ""
    2095            ),
    2096            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
    2097            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
    2098            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
    2099        ]
    2100
    2101    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2102        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2103        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2104        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
    2105
    2106    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2107        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2108        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2109            into.pop()
    2110
    2111        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2112        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2113        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2114        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2115        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2116        top = (
    2117            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2118            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2119            else ""
    2120        )
    2121
    2122        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2123
    2124        if kind:
    2125            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2126                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2127            else:
    2128                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2129                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2130                        sqls=[
    2131                            self.sql(
    2132                                exp.Struct(
    2133                                    expressions=[
    2134                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
    2135                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
    2136                                        )
    2137                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2138                                    ]
    2139                                )
    2140                            )
    2141                        ]
    2142                    )
    2143                kind = ""
    2144
    2145        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2146        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2147        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2148        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2149        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2150            expression,
    2151            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2152            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2153            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2154        )
    2155
    2156        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2157
    2158        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2159            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2160                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2161            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2162                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2163            else:
    2164                table_kind = ""
    2165            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2166
    2167        return sql
    2168
    2169    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2171        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2172        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
    2173
    2174    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2175        if expression.expressions:
    2176            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2177        return ""
    2178
    2179    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2180        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2181        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2182        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2183        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2184        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
    2185
    2186    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2188        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
    2189
    2190    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2192        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2193        if kind:
    2194            kind = f"{kind}."
    2195        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
    2196
    2197    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2198        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
    2199
    2200    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2201        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2202        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2203
    2204        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2205        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2206
    2207        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2208        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2209
    2210    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2211        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2212        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2213
    2214    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2215        return self.prepend_ctes(
    2216            expression,
    2217            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
    2218        )
    2219
    2220    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2221        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2222        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2223        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2224        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
    2225
    2226    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2227        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2228
    2229        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2230        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2231
    2232        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2233            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2234                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2235
    2236        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2237            columns = alias.columns
    2238            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2239        else:
    2240            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2241
    2242        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2243        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2244            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2245        else:
    2246            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2247                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2248            elif offset:
    2249                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2250            else:
    2251                suffix = alias
    2252
    2253        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
    2254
    2255    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2256        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2257        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
    2258
    2259    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2261        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2262        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2263        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2264        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2265        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2266        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2267
    2268        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2269
    2270        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2271        if first is None:
    2272            first = ""
    2273        else:
    2274            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2275
    2276        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2277            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2278
    2279        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2280        return f"{this} ({args})"
    2281
    2282    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2283        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2284        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
    2285
    2286    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2287        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2288        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2289        end = (
    2290            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2291            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2292        )
    2293        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
    2294
    2295    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2297        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2298        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
    2299
    2300    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2302        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2303        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2304        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
    2305
    2306    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2307        expressions = apply_index_offset(
    2308            expression.this,
    2309            expression.expressions,
    2310            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2311        )
    2312        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2313        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
    2314
    2315    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2316        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
    2317
    2318    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2320        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
    2321            this = self.wrap(this)
    2322        return f"ANY {this}"
    2323
    2324    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2325        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
    2326
    2327    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2329        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2330
    2331        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2332            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2333            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2334
    2335        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2336
    2337        if default:
    2338            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2339
    2340        statements.append("END")
    2341
    2342        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
    2343            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2344
    2345        return " ".join(statements)
    2346
    2347    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2349        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2350        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
    2351
    2352    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2353        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2354        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2355        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
    2356
    2357    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2359        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2360        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
    2361
    2362    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2363        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2364
    2365        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2366            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2367        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2368            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2369        else:
    2370            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
    2371
    2372    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2373        args = expression.expressions
    2374        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2375            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2376
    2377        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2378            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
    2379
    2380        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2381            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2382
    2383        return args
    2384
    2385    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2386        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2387
    2388        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2389        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2390            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2391
    2392        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
    2393
    2394    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2395        return self.func(
    2396            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2397        )
    2398
    2399    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2400        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2401        return f"CHECK ({this})"
    2402
    2403    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2405        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2406        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2407        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2408        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2409        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2410        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2411        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
    2412
    2413    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2414        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2415        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2416        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2417        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
    2418
    2419    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2420        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
    2421
    2422    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2423        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2424        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2425        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
    2426
    2427    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2428        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2429
    2430    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2431        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2432        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    2433
    2434    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2435        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2436            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2437            if not callable(transform):
    2438                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2439                return ""
    2440
    2441            return transform(self, expression)
    2442
    2443        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2444            return str(expression)
    2445
    2446        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2447            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2448            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2449        else:
    2450            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2451            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2452
    2453        return escaped
    2454
    2455    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2456        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
    2457
    2458    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2459        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2460        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2461
    2462        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2463        if unique_keys is not None:
    2464            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2465        else:
    2466            unique_keys = ""
    2467
    2468        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2469        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2470        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2471        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2472
    2473        return self.func(
    2474            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2475            *expression.expressions,
    2476            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2477        )
    2478
    2479    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2480        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
    2481
    2482    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2483        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2484        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2485        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2486        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2487        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2488        return self.func(
    2489            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2490        )
    2491
    2492    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2494        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2495        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2496        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2497        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2498        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2499        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2500        return self.func(
    2501            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2502            this,
    2503            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2504        )
    2505
    2506    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2507        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2508        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2509        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2510
    2511        if nested_schema:
    2512            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2513
    2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2516        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2517        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
    2518
    2519    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2520        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
    2521
    2522    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2524        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2525        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2526        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2527        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2528        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2529        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2530        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2531        return self.func(
    2532            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2533        )
    2534
    2535    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2538        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2539        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2540        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2541        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
    2542
    2543    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2545        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2546        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2548        with_ = (
    2549            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2550            if expressions
    2551            else ""
    2552        )
    2553        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
    2554
    2555    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2556        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2557        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2558        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2559        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2560
    2561        if query:
    2562            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
    2563        elif unnest:
    2564            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2565        elif field:
    2566            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2567        else:
    2568            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2569
    2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
    2571
    2572    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2573        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
    2574
    2575    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2576        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2577        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2578            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2579        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2580
    2581        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2582            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2583            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2584
    2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2586        if this:
    2587            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2588            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2589
    2590        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
    2591
    2592    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2593        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2594
    2595    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2598        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2599        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2600        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2601        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
    2602
    2603    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2604        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
    2605
    2606    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2607        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
    2608            sql = self.wrap(expression)
    2609        else:
    2610            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2611            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2612
    2613        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2614
    2615    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2616        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2617        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2618        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2619        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
    2620
    2621    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2622        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2623
    2624    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2625        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2626        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
    2628
    2629    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2630        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2631        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2632
    2633        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2634            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2635        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2636            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2637
    2638        return self.alias_sql(expression)
    2639
    2640    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2641        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2642
    2643    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2645        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2646        return f"{this} AT {index}"
    2647
    2648    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2650        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2651        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
    2652
    2653    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2655        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2656        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
    2657
    2658    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2659        return self.binary(expression, "+")
    2660
    2661    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
    2662        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
    2663
    2664    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
    2665        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
    2666
    2667    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
    2668        if not self.pretty:
    2669            return self.binary(expression, op)
    2670
    2671        sqls = tuple(
    2672            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
    2673            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
    2674        )
    2675
    2676        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
    2677        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
    2678
    2679    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2680        return self.binary(expression, "&")
    2681
    2682    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2683        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
    2684
    2685    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2686        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    2687
    2688    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2689        return self.binary(expression, "|")
    2690
    2691    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2692        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
    2693
    2694    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2695        return self.binary(expression, "^")
    2696
    2697    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2698        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2699        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2700        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2701        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2702        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
    2703
    2704    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2705        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2706        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
    2707
    2708    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2709        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
    2710
    2711    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2712        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2713            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2714        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
    2715
    2716    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
    2718
    2719    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2721        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2722        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2723        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2724        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
    2725
    2726    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2728        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2729        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2730        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2731        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2732        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2733        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2734        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2735        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
    2736
    2737    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2738        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2739        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2740        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2741        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2742
    2743        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2744            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2745
    2746        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
    2747
    2748    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2749        return "BEGIN"
    2750
    2751    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2752        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2753        if chain is not None:
    2754            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2755
    2756        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
    2757
    2758    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2759        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2760        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2761        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
    2762
    2763    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2765
    2766        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2767        if dtype:
    2768            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2769            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2770            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2771            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2772            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2773
    2774        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2775        if default:
    2776            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2777
    2778        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2779        if comment:
    2780            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2781
    2782        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2783            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2784
    2785        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
    2786
    2787    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2788        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2789            # Remove db from tables
    2790            expression = expression.transform(
    2791                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2792            )
    2793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2794        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
    2795
    2796    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2797        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2798        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2799        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2800        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
    2801
    2802    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2803        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2804
    2805        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2806            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2807        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2808            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2809        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2810            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2811        else:
    2812            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2813
    2814        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2815        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2816        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
    2817
    2818    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2819        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    2820            return self.expressions(
    2821                expression,
    2822                key="actions",
    2823                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    2824            )
    2825        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
    2826
    2827    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2829        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2830        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
    2831
    2832    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2834        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2835        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
    2836
    2837        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
    2838        if enforced is not None:
    2839            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
    2840
    2841        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
    2842
    2843    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    2844        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2845
    2846        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    2847            case = exp.case()
    2848            for arg in expression.expressions:
    2849                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    2850            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    2851
    2852        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    2853
    2854        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2855        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    2856        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
    2857
    2858    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    2859        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
    2860
    2861    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    2862        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
    2863
    2864    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
    2865        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC:
    2866            this = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
    2867            if this:
    2868                sql = self.sql(this)
    2869                sql = sql[:-1] + f" {text})"
    2870                return sql
    2871
    2872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
    2873
    2874    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    2875        return self.sql(
    2876            exp.Cast(
    2877                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    2878                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    2879            )
    2880        )
    2881
    2882    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    2883        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2884            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
    2885        return self.binary(expression, "||")
    2886
    2887    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    2888        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    2889
    2890        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2891            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    2892
    2893        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    2894            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
    2895                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
    2896            ):
    2897                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    2898
    2899        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    2900            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    2901                return self.sql(
    2902                    exp.cast(
    2903                        l / r,
    2904                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    2905                    )
    2906                )
    2907
    2908        return self.binary(expression, "/")
    2909
    2910    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    2911        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
    2912
    2913    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    2914        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
    2915
    2916    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    2918
    2919    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    2920        return self.binary(expression, "=")
    2921
    2922    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    2923        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
    2924
    2925    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    2926        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
    2927
    2928    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    2929        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
    2930
    2931    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    2932        return self.binary(expression, ">")
    2933
    2934    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    2935        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
    2936
    2937    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    2938        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
    2939
    2940    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    2941        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
    2942
    2943    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    2944        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    2945            return self.sql(
    2946                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    2947            )
    2948        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
    2949
    2950    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    2951        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
    2952
    2953    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    2954        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
    2955
    2956    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    2957        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
    2958
    2959    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    2960        return self.binary(expression, "<")
    2961
    2962    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    2963        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
    2964
    2965    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    2966        return self.binary(expression, "%")
    2967
    2968    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    2969        return self.binary(expression, "*")
    2970
    2971    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    2972        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
    2973
    2974    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    2975        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
    2976
    2977    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    2978        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
    2979
    2980    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
    2981        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
    2982
    2983    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    2984        return self.binary(expression, ":")
    2985
    2986    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    2987        return self.binary(expression, "-")
    2988
    2989    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    2990        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
    2991
    2992    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    2993        this = expression.this
    2994        expr = expression.expression
    2995
    2996        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
    2997            this, expr = expr, this
    2998
    2999        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
    3000
    3001    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3002        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3003        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3005        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3006        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
    3007
    3008    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3009        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3010        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3011
    3012    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3013        args = []
    3014
    3015        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3016            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3017
    3018            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3019                for value in arg_value:
    3020                    args.append(value)
    3021            elif arg_value is not None:
    3022                args.append(arg_value)
    3023
    3024        if self.normalize_functions:
    3025            name = expression.sql_name()
    3026        else:
    3027            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3028
    3029        return self.func(name, *args)
    3030
    3031    def func(
    3032        self,
    3033        name: str,
    3034        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3035        prefix: str = "(",
    3036        suffix: str = ")",
    3037    ) -> str:
    3038        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
    3039
    3040    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3041        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3042        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
    3043            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3044        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
    3045
    3046    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
    3047        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
    3048
    3049    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3050        return format_time(
    3051            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3052            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3053            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3054        )
    3055
    3056    def expressions(
    3057        self,
    3058        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3059        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3060        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3061        flat: bool = False,
    3062        indent: bool = True,
    3063        skip_first: bool = False,
    3064        sep: str = ", ",
    3065        prefix: str = "",
    3066    ) -> str:
    3067        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3068
    3069        if not expressions:
    3070            return ""
    3071
    3072        if flat:
    3073            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3074
    3075        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3076
    3077        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3078        pad = " " * self.pad
    3079        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3080
    3081        result_sqls = []
    3082        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3083            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3084            if not sql:
    3085                continue
    3086
    3087            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3088
    3089            if self.pretty:
    3090                if self.leading_comma:
    3091                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3092                else:
    3093                    result_sqls.append(
    3094                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3095                    )
    3096            else:
    3097                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3098
    3099        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
    3100        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
    3101
    3102    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3103        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3104        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3105        if flat:
    3106            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3107        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
    3108
    3109    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3110        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3111        if not property_name:
    3112            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3113        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    3114
    3115    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
    3116        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
    3117        op = self.seg(op)
    3118        return self.query_modifiers(
    3119            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3120        )
    3121
    3122    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3123        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
    3124
    3125    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3126        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
    3127
    3128    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3130        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3131        expressions = (
    3132            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3133        )
    3134        return f"{this}{expressions}"
    3135
    3136    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3138        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3139        return f"{this}({expressions})"
    3140
    3141    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3142        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
    3143
    3144    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3145        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3146        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3147        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3148        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3149
    3150        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3151        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3152            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3153            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3154                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3155        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3156            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3157                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3158            else:
    3159                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3160        else:
    3161            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3162        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
    3163
    3164    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3165        table = expression.this
    3166        table_alias = ""
    3167
    3168        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3169        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3170            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3171            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3172
    3173        this = self.sql(table)
    3174        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3175        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3176        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3177
    3178        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3179            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3180        )
    3181
    3182    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3183        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3184            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3185
    3186        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
    3187
    3188    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3190        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3191        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3192        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3193        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
    3194
    3195    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3197        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3198        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3199        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
    3200
    3201    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3202        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    3203
    3204    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3205        return ""
    3206
    3207    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3209        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3210        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3211        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3212        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
    3213
    3214    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3216        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3217
    3218        if having:
    3219            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3220
    3221        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
    3222
    3223    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3224        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3225        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3226        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3227        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3228        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3229        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3230        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3231        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3232        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3233        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3234        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3235        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3236        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
    3237
    3238    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3239        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3240        if key_block_size:
    3241            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3242
    3243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3244        if using:
    3245            return f"USING {using}"
    3246
    3247        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3248        if parser:
    3249            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3250
    3251        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3252        if comment:
    3253            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3254
    3255        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3256        if visible is not None:
    3257            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3258
    3259        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3260        if engine_attr:
    3261            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3262
    3263        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3264        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3265            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3266
    3267        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3268        return ""
    3269
    3270    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3271        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3272        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3274        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3275        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3276        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3277        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3278        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
    3279        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3280        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3281        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
    3282
    3283    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3284        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3285            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3286
    3287        case = exp.Case().when(
    3288            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3289            expression.args["true"],
    3290            copy=False,
    3291        )
    3292        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3293        if else_cond:
    3294            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3295
    3296        return self.sql(case)
    3297
    3298    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3300        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3301        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3302        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3303        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3304        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
    3305
    3306    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3307        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
    3308
    3309    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3310        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3311
    3312    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3313        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3314        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3315        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3316        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3317        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3318        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
    3319
    3320    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3322        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3323        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
    3324
    3325    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3327        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3328        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
    3329
    3330    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3331        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
    3332
    3333    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3334        arg = expression.this
    3335        if not arg.type:
    3336            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3337
    3338            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3339
    3340        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3341            return self.sql(arg)
    3342
    3343        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3344        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
    3345
    3346    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3347        this = expression.this
    3348        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3349            return self.sql(this)
    3350
    3351        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
    3352
    3353    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3354        this = expression.this
    3355        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3356
    3357        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3358            return self.sql(
    3359                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
    3360            )
    3361
    3362        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3363            return self.sql(this)
    3364
    3365        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
    3366
    3367    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3368        return self.sql(
    3369            exp.func(
    3370                "DATEDIFF",
    3371                expression.this,
    3372                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
    3373                "day",
    3374            )
    3375        )
    3376
    3377    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3378        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3379            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3380
    3381        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3382        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3383            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3384
    3385        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
    3386
    3387    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
    3388        this = expression.this
    3389        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
    3390            this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3391            return f".{this}" if this else ""
    3392
    3393        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
    3394            return f".{this}"
    3395
    3396        this = self.json_path_part(this)
    3397        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
    3398
    3399    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
    3400        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
    3401        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
    3402
    3403    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
    3404        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
    3405            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
    3406
    3407            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
    3408
    3409        return expression
    3410
    3411    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    3412        return [
    3413            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
    3414            for value in values
    3415            if value
    3416        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

###### Arguments:

- pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
- identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
- normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
- pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
- indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
- normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
- unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
- max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
- leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
- max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
- comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True

Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None) View Source

    478    def __init__(
    479        self,
    480        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
    481        identify: str | bool = False,
    482        normalize: bool = False,
    483        pad: int = 2,
    484        indent: int = 2,
    485        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
    486        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
    487        max_unsupported: int = 3,
    488        leading_comma: bool = False,
    489        max_text_width: int = 80,
    490        comments: bool = True,
    491        dialect: DialectType = None,
    492    ):
    493        import sqlglot
    494        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
    495
    496        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
    497        self.identify = identify
    498        self.normalize = normalize
    499        self.pad = pad
    500        self._indent = indent
    501        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
    502        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
    503        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
    504        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
    505        self.comments = comments
    506        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
    507
    508        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
    509        self.normalize_functions = (
    510            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
    511        )
    512
    513        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
    514        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
    515            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
    516        )
    517        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
    518            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
    519        )

TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>}
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Create'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Delete'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Insert'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Join'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Update'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    521    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
    522        """
    523        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
    524
    525        Args:
    526            expression: The syntax tree.
    527            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
    528                it is safer to copy.
    529
    530        Returns:
    531            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
    532        """
    533        if copy:
    534            expression = expression.copy()
    535
    536        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
    537
    538        self.unsupported_messages = []
    539        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
    540
    541        if self.pretty:
    542            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
    543
    544        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
    545            return sql
    546
    547        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
    548            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
    549                logger.warning(msg)
    550        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
    551            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
    552
    553        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

###### Arguments:

- expression: The syntax tree.
- copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.

###### Returns:

> The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression: View Source

    555    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
    556        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
    557        if (
    558            not expression.parent
    559            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
    560            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
    561        ):
    562            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
    563
    564            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
    565
    566        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
    567            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
    568
    569            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
    570
    571        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None: View Source

    573    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
    574        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
    575            raise UnsupportedError(message)
    576        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    578    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    579        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    581    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    582        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str: View Source

    584    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
    585        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
    586        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
    587        return comment

def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str: View Source

    589    def maybe_comment(
    590        self,
    591        sql: str,
    592        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    593        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
    594    ) -> str:
    595        comments = (
    596            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
    597            if self.comments
    598            else None
    599        )
    600
    601        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
    602            return sql
    603
    604        comments_sql = " ".join(
    605            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
    606        )
    607
    608        if not comments_sql:
    609            return sql
    610
    611        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
    612            return (
    613                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
    614                if sql[0].isspace()
    615                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    616            )
    617
    618        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str: View Source

    620    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
    621        this_sql = self.indent(
    622            (
    623                self.sql(expression)
    624                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
    625                else self.sql(expression, "this")
    626            ),
    627            level=1,
    628            pad=0,
    629        )
    630        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str: View Source

    632    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
    633        original = self.identify
    634        self.identify = False
    635        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
    636        self.identify = original
    637        return result

def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str: View Source

    639    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
    640        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
    641            return name.upper()
    642        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
    643            return name.lower()
    644        return name

def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    646    def indent(
    647        self,
    648        sql: str,
    649        level: int = 0,
    650        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
    651        skip_first: bool = False,
    652        skip_last: bool = False,
    653    ) -> str:
    654        if not self.pretty:
    655            return sql
    656
    657        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
    658        lines = sql.split("\n")
    659
    660        return "\n".join(
    661            (
    662                line
    663                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
    664                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
    665            )
    666            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
    667        )

def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    669    def sql(
    670        self,
    671        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
    672        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    673        comment: bool = True,
    674    ) -> str:
    675        if not expression:
    676            return ""
    677
    678        if isinstance(expression, str):
    679            return expression
    680
    681        if key:
    682            value = expression.args.get(key)
    683            if value:
    684                return self.sql(value)
    685            return ""
    686
    687        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    688
    689        if callable(transform):
    690            sql = transform(self, expression)
    691        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
    692            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
    693
    694            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
    695                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
    696            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
    697                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    698            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
    699                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
    700            else:
    701                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    702        else:
    703            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
    704
    705        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str: View Source

    707    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
    708        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    709        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    710        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str: View Source

    712    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
    713        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
    714        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    715        options = expression.args.get("options")
    716        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
    717        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    718        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
    719        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
    720        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str: View Source

    722    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
    723        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
    724            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    725        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
    726        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str: View Source

    728    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
    729        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
    730
    731        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
    732            join_mark = ""
    733            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
    734
    735        column = ".".join(
    736            self.sql(part)
    737            for part in (
    738                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    739                expression.args.get("db"),
    740                expression.args.get("table"),
    741                expression.args.get("this"),
    742            )
    743            if part
    744        )
    745
    746        return f"{column}{join_mark}"

def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str: View Source

    748    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
    749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    750        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    751        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    752        return f"{position}{this}"

def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str: View Source

    754    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
    755        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    756        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    757        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
    758        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    759        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
    760        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
    761        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
    762        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
    763
    764        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
    765            kind = ""
    766
    767        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    769    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
    770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    771        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
    772        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    774    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
    775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    776        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
    777            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
    778        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
    779            persisted = " PERSISTED"
    780        else:
    781            persisted = ""
    782        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str: View Source

    784    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
    785        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    787    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
    788        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    789            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
    790        else:
    791            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    792
    793        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    795    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
    796        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    797    ) -> str:
    798        this = ""
    799        if expression.this is not None:
    800            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
    801            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
    802
    803        start = expression.args.get("start")
    804        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
    805        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
    806        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
    807        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
    808        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
    809        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
    810        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
    811        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
    812        cycle_sql = ""
    813
    814        if cycle is not None:
    815            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
    816            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
    817
    818        sequence_opts = ""
    819        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
    820            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
    821            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
    822
    823        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    824        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
    825
    826        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    828    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
    829        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    830    ) -> str:
    831        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
    832        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
    833        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str: View Source

    835    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
    836        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    837    ) -> str:
    838        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    840    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
    841        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    843    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
    844        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    846    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
    847        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    848        if desc is not None:
    849            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
    850        return "PRIMARY KEY"

def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    852    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
    853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    854        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    855        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
    856        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    857        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"

def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str: View Source

    859    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
    860        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str: View Source

    862    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
    863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    864        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
    865        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
    866
    867        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
    868
    869        properties_sql = ""
    870        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
    871            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
    872        ):
    873            properties_sql = self.sql(
    874                exp.Properties(
    875                    expressions=[
    876                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
    877                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
    878                    ]
    879                )
    880            )
    881
    882        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
    883        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
    884
    885        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    886        if expression_sql:
    887            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
    888
    889            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
    890                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
    891                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
    892                        exp.Properties(
    893                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
    894                        ),
    895                        wrapped=False,
    896                    )
    897                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
    898                else:
    899                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
    900
    901        postindex_props_sql = ""
    902        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
    903            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
    904                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
    905                wrapped=False,
    906                prefix=" ",
    907            )
    908
    909        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
    910        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
    911        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
    912
    913        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
    914        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    915
    916        postcreate_props_sql = ""
    917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
    918            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
    919                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
    920                sep=" ",
    921                prefix=" ",
    922                wrapped=False,
    923            )
    924
    925        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
    926
    927        postexpression_props_sql = ""
    928        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
    929            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
    930                exp.Properties(
    931                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
    932                ),
    933                sep=" ",
    934                prefix=" ",
    935                wrapped=False,
    936            )
    937
    938        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    939        no_schema_binding = (
    940            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
    941        )
    942
    943        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
    944        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
    945
    946        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
    947        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str: View Source

    949    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
    950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    951        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
    952        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
    953        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str: View Source

    955    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
    956        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
    957        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str: View Source

    959    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
    960        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
    961        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str: View Source

    963    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
    964        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
    965        if with_:
    966            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
    967        return sql

def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str: View Source

    969    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
    970        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    971        recursive = (
    972            "RECURSIVE "
    973            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
    974            else ""
    975        )
    976
    977        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"

def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str: View Source

    979    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
    980        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    981        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"

def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str: View Source

    983    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
    984        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
    985        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    986        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    987
    988        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
    989            columns = ""
    990            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
    991
    992        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    993            alias = "_t"
    994
    995        return f"{alias}{columns}"

def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str: View Source

     997    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
     998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
     999        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
    1000            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
    1001        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str: View Source

    1003    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
    1004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1005        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
    1006            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
    1007        return f"{int(this, 16)}"

def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str: View Source

    1009    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
    1010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1011        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
    1012            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
    1013        return this

def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str: View Source

    1015    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
    1016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1017        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
    1018
    1019        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
    1020            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
    1021            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
    1022
    1023        if escape:
    1024            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
    1025        else:
    1026            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
    1027
    1028        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
    1029        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str: View Source

    1031    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
    1032        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
    1033        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str: View Source

    1035    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
    1036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1037        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1038        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
    1039        return f"{this}{specifier}"

def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str: View Source

    1041    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
    1042        type_value = expression.this
    1043
    1044        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
    1045            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1046        else:
    1047            type_sql = (
    1048                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
    1049                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
    1050                else type_value
    1051            )
    1052
    1053        nested = ""
    1054        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1055        values = ""
    1056
    1057        if interior:
    1058            if expression.args.get("nested"):
    1059                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
    1060                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
    1061                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
    1062                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
    1063                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
    1064            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
    1065                nested = f" {interior}"
    1066            else:
    1067                nested = f"({interior})"
    1068
    1069        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
    1070        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
    1071            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
    1072            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
    1073        ):
    1074            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
    1075
    1076        return type_sql

def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str: View Source

    1078    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
    1079        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1080        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
    1081        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
    1082        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str: View Source

    1084    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
    1085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1086        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
    1087        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1088        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1089        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1090        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1091        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1092        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
    1093        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
    1094        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1095            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
    1096        else:
    1097            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
    1098        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str: View Source

    1100    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
    1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1102        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    1103        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    1104        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1105        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
    1106        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
    1107        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
    1108        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
    1109        return (
    1110            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
    1111        )

def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1113    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1114        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1115            expression,
    1116            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
    1117        )

def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str: View Source

    1119    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
    1120        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str: View Source

    1122    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
    1123        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
    1124        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
    1125        count = expression.args.get("count")
    1126        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
    1127        if expression.args.get("percent"):
    1128            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
    1129        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
    1130        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"

def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str: View Source

    1132    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
    1133        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
    1134            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1135            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
    1136            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
    1137
    1138        agg = expression.this
    1139        agg_arg = agg.this
    1140        cond = expression.expression.this
    1141        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
    1142        return self.sql(agg)

def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str: View Source

    1144    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
    1145        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
    1146            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
    1147            return ""
    1148
    1149        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str: View Source

    1151    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
    1152        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
    1153        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
    1154        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
    1155        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1156        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
    1157        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
    1158        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
    1159        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    1160        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    1161        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
    1162        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
    1163        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
    1164        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    1165        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
    1166        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1167        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
    1168        if include:
    1169            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
    1170        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"

def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str: View Source

    1172    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
    1173        text = expression.name
    1174        lower = text.lower()
    1175        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
    1176        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
    1177        if (
    1178            expression.quoted
    1179            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
    1180            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
    1181            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
    1182        ):
    1183            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
    1184        return text

def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str: View Source

    1186    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
    1187        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1188        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1189        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
    1190        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
    1191        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str: View Source

    1193    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
    1194        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
    1195        return f"{prefix}{string}"

def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str: View Source

    1197    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
    1198        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1200    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1201        root_properties = []
    1202        with_properties = []
    1203
    1204        for p in expression.expressions:
    1205            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1206            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
    1207                with_properties.append(p)
    1208            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
    1209                root_properties.append(p)
    1210
    1211        return self.root_properties(
    1212            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
    1213        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))

def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1215    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1216        if properties.expressions:
    1217            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
    1218        return ""

def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str: View Source

    1220    def properties(
    1221        self,
    1222        properties: exp.Properties,
    1223        prefix: str = "",
    1224        sep: str = ", ",
    1225        suffix: str = "",
    1226        wrapped: bool = True,
    1227    ) -> str:
    1228        if properties.expressions:
    1229            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
    1230            if expressions:
    1231                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
    1232                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
    1233        return ""

def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str: View Source

    1235    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
    1236        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))

def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict: View Source

    1238    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
    1239        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
    1240        for p in properties.expressions:
    1241            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
    1242            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
    1243                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
    1244            else:
    1245                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
    1246
    1247        return properties_locs

def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1249    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
    1250        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
    1251            return self.sql(expression, "this")
    1252        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    1254    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    1255        property_cls = expression.__class__
    1256        if property_cls == exp.Property:
    1257            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
    1258
    1259        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
    1260        if not property_name:
    1261            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
    1262
    1263        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1265    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
    1266        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
    1267            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
    1268            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    1269
    1270            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
    1271            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
    1272                like = f"({like})"
    1273
    1274            return like
    1275
    1276        if expression.expressions:
    1277            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
    1278
    1279        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
    1280        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str: View Source

    1282    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
    1283        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1284        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
    1285        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str: View Source

    1287    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
    1288        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
    1289        local = expression.args.get("local")
    1290        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
    1291        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
    1292        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
    1293        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
    1294        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str: View Source

    1296    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
    1297        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1298        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1299        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str: View Source

    1301    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
    1302        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1303            property = "DEFAULT"
    1304        elif expression.args.get("on"):
    1305            property = "ON"
    1306        else:
    1307            property = "OFF"
    1308        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str: View Source

    1310    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
    1311        if expression.args.get("no"):
    1312            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1313        if expression.args.get("default"):
    1314            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
    1315
    1316        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
    1317        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str: View Source

    1319    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
    1320        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1321        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
    1322        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
    1323        if default or minimum or maximum:
    1324            if default:
    1325                prop = "DEFAULT"
    1326            elif minimum:
    1327                prop = "MINIMUM"
    1328            else:
    1329                prop = "MAXIMUM"
    1330            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
    1331        units = expression.args.get("units")
    1332        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
    1333        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str: View Source

    1335    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
    1336        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
    1337        always = expression.args.get("always")
    1338        default = expression.args.get("default")
    1339        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
    1340        never = expression.args.get("never")
    1341
    1342        if autotemp is not None:
    1343            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
    1344        elif always:
    1345            prop = "ALWAYS"
    1346        elif default:
    1347            prop = "DEFAULT"
    1348        elif manual:
    1349            prop = "MANUAL"
    1350        elif never:
    1351            prop = "NEVER"
    1352        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1354    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
    1355        no = expression.args.get("no")
    1356        no = " NO" if no else ""
    1357        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
    1358        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
    1359
    1360        for_ = ""
    1361        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
    1362            for_ = " FOR ALL"
    1363        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
    1364            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
    1365        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
    1366            for_ = " FOR NONE"
    1367        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"

def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str: View Source

    1369    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
    1370        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
    1371            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
    1372        if expression.this:
    1373            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1374            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1375            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
    1376
    1377        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
    1378        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
    1379        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str: View Source

    1381    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
    1382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1383
    1384        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
    1385        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
    1386            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
    1387        else:
    1388            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
    1389
    1390        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str: View Source

    1392    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
    1393        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
    1394        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
    1395        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
    1396        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
    1397        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
    1398        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
    1399        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str: View Source

    1401    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
    1402        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
    1403        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
    1404        statistics_sql = ""
    1405        if statistics is not None:
    1406            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
    1407        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str: View Source

    1409    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
    1410        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
    1411
    1412        if expression.this:
    1413            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1414            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
    1415
    1416            if expression.expression:
    1417                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1418                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
    1419
    1420            sql = f"{sql})"
    1421
    1422        return f"{sql})"

def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str: View Source

    1424    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
    1425        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
    1426
    1427        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
    1428            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
    1429        else:
    1430            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
    1431
    1432        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
    1433        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
    1434        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
    1435
    1436        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1437
    1438        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    1439        partition_sql = (
    1440            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
    1441        )
    1442        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1443        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
    1444        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    1445        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
    1446        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    1447        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1448
    1449        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1450            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
    1451        else:
    1452            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
    1453
    1454        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
    1455        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1457    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1458        return self.prepend_ctes(
    1459            expression,
    1460            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
    1461        )

def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str: View Source

    1463    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
    1464        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"

def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str: View Source

    1466    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
    1467        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str: View Source

    1469    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
    1470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1471        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    1472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1473        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    1474        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str: View Source

    1476    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
    1477        return expression.name

def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str: View Source

    1479    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
    1480        return expression.name

def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str: View Source

    1482    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
    1483        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
    1484        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
    1485        if constraint:
    1486            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
    1487        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
    1488        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
    1489        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
    1490        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1491        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
    1492        if expressions:
    1493            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
    1494        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"

def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str: View Source

    1496    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
    1497        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str: View Source

    1499    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
    1500        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
    1501        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
    1502        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
    1503        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
    1504        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
    1505        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
    1506        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
    1507        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
    1508        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
    1509        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
    1510        null = expression.args.get("null")
    1511        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
    1512        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1514    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
    1515        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str: View Source

    1517    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
    1518        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
    1519        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
    1520        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
    1521        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str: View Source

    1523    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
    1524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1526        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1527        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    1529    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    1530        table = ".".join(
    1531            self.sql(part)
    1532            for part in (
    1533                expression.args.get("catalog"),
    1534                expression.args.get("db"),
    1535                expression.args.get("this"),
    1536            )
    1537            if part is not None
    1538        )
    1539
    1540        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
    1541        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
    1542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1543        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    1544        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
    1545        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
    1546        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    1547        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    1548        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
    1549        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
    1550
    1551        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
    1552        if file_format:
    1553            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    1554            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
    1555            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
    1556
    1557        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
    1558        if ordinality:
    1559            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
    1560            alias = ""
    1561
    1562        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
    1563        if when:
    1564            table = f"{table} {when}"
    1565
    1566        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    1568    def tablesample_sql(
    1569        self,
    1570        expression: exp.TableSample,
    1571        sep: str = " AS ",
    1572        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    1573    ) -> str:
    1574        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
    1575            table = expression.this.copy()
    1576            table.set("alias", None)
    1577            this = self.sql(table)
    1578            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
    1579        else:
    1580            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1581            alias = ""
    1582
    1583        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
    1584        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
    1585        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
    1586        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
    1587        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
    1588        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
    1589        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
    1590        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
    1591        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
    1592
    1593        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
    1594        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
    1595            size = f"{size} ROWS"
    1596
    1597        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
    1598        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
    1599            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
    1600
    1601        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
    1602        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
    1603            expr = f"({expr})"
    1604
    1605        return (
    1606            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
    1607        )

def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str: View Source

    1609    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
    1610        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1611
    1612        if expression.this:
    1613            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1614            if not expressions:
    1615                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
    1616
    1617            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
    1618            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
    1619            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
    1620            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    1621            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
    1622
    1623        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1624        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1625        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
    1626        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
    1627        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
    1628        if include_nulls is not None:
    1629            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
    1630        else:
    1631            nulls = ""
    1632        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"

def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str: View Source

    1634    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
    1635        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
    1636        kind = expression.text("kind")
    1637        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    1638        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str: View Source

    1640    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
    1641        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str: View Source

    1643    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
    1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1645        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1646        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1647        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
    1648        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
    1649        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    1650        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
    1651        if self.RETURNING_END:
    1652            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
    1653        else:
    1654            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
    1655        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
    1656        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str: View Source

    1658    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
    1659        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
    1660        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
    1661            args = self.expressions(expression)
    1662            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1663            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
    1664            values = (
    1665                f"({values})"
    1666                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
    1667                else values
    1668            )
    1669            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
    1670
    1671        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
    1672        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
    1673        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
    1674
    1675        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
    1676
    1677        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
    1678            row = tup.expressions
    1679
    1680            if i == 0 and column_names:
    1681                row = [
    1682                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
    1683                ]
    1684
    1685            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
    1686
    1687        if self.pretty:
    1688            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
    1689            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
    1690            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
    1691            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
    1692            return self.subquery_sql(
    1693                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
    1694            )
    1695
    1696        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
    1697        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
    1698        return f"({unions}){alias}"

def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str: View Source

    1700    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
    1701        return self.sql(expression, "this")

def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str: View Source

    1703    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
    1704        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
    1705        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
    1706        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str: View Source

    1708    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
    1709        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str: View Source

    1711    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
    1712        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
    1713
    1714        if expression.args.get("all"):
    1715            return f"{group_by} ALL"
    1716
    1717        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
    1718        grouping_sets = (
    1719            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
    1720        )
    1721
    1722        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
    1723        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
    1724            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
    1725        else:
    1726            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
    1727            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
    1728
    1729        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
    1730        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
    1731            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
    1732        else:
    1733            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
    1734            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
    1735
    1736        groupings = csv(
    1737            grouping_sets,
    1738            cube_sql,
    1739            rollup_sql,
    1740            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
    1741            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
    1742        )
    1743
    1744        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
    1745            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
    1746
    1747        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str: View Source

    1749    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
    1750        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    1751        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str: View Source

    1753    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
    1754        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
    1755        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
    1756        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
    1757        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
    1758        return start + connect

def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str: View Source

    1760    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
    1761        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str: View Source

    1763    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
    1764        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
    1765            side = None
    1766        else:
    1767            side = expression.side
    1768
    1769        op_sql = " ".join(
    1770            op
    1771            for op in (
    1772                expression.method,
    1773                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
    1774                side,
    1775                expression.kind,
    1776                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
    1777            )
    1778            if op
    1779        )
    1780        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
    1781        using = expression.args.get("using")
    1782
    1783        if not on_sql and using:
    1784            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
    1785
    1786        this = expression.this
    1787        this_sql = self.sql(this)
    1788
    1789        if on_sql:
    1790            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
    1791            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
    1792            if using:
    1793                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
    1794            else:
    1795                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
    1796        elif not op_sql:
    1797            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
    1798                return f" {this_sql}"
    1799
    1800            return f", {this_sql}"
    1801
    1802        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
    1803        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"

def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str: View Source

    1805    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
    1806        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1807        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
    1808        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1810    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1811        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
    1812
    1813        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
    1814        if cross_apply is True:
    1815            op = "INNER JOIN "
    1816        elif cross_apply is False:
    1817            op = "LEFT JOIN "
    1818        else:
    1819            op = ""
    1820
    1821        return f"{op}LATERAL"

def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str: View Source

    1823    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
    1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1825
    1826        if expression.args.get("view"):
    1827            alias = expression.args["alias"]
    1828            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
    1829            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
    1830            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
    1831            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
    1832            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
    1833
    1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    1835        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    1836        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"

def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1838    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
    1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1840
    1841        args = [
    1842            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
    1843            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
    1844            if e
    1845        ]
    1846
    1847        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
    1848        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
    1849        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1850        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1851
    1852        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"

def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str: View Source

    1854    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
    1855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1856        value = expression.expression
    1857        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
    1858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1859        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1860        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str: View Source

    1862    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
    1863        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    1864        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
    1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1866        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    1867        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    1868        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    1869        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
    1870        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str: View Source

    1872    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
    1873        expressions = (
    1874            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
    1875        )
    1876        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
    1877        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str: View Source

    1879    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
    1880        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str: View Source

    1882    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
    1883        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
    1884            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
    1885            return ""
    1886
    1887        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
    1888        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    1889        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
    1890        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
    1891
    1892        if wait is not None:
    1893            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
    1894                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
    1895            else:
    1896                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
    1897
    1898        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str: View Source

    1900    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
    1901        text = expression.this or ""
    1902        if expression.is_string:
    1903            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
    1904        return text

def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str: View Source

    1906    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
    1907        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
    1908        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
    1909            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
    1910        elif self.pretty:
    1911            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
    1912        return text

def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str: View Source

    1914    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
    1915        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
    1916        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
    1917        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
    1918        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
    1919        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
    1920        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
    1921        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
    1922        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
    1923        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
    1924        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
    1925        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

def null_sql(self, *_) -> str: View Source

    1927    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
    1928        return "NULL"

def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str: View Source

    1930    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
    1931        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    1933    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    1934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1935        this = f"{this} " if this else this
    1936        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
    1937        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
    1938        interpolated_values = [
    1939            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
    1940            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
    1941        ]
    1942        interpolate = (
    1943            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
    1944        )
    1945        return f"{order}{interpolate}"

def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str: View Source

    1947    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
    1948        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
    1949        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
    1950        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    1951        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    1952        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
    1953        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
    1954        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"

def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str: View Source

    1956    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
    1957        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str: View Source

    1959    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
    1960        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str: View Source

    1962    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
    1963        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str: View Source

    1965    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
    1966        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
    1967        asc = not desc
    1968
    1969        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
    1970        nulls_last = not nulls_first
    1971        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
    1972        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
    1973        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
    1974
    1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    1976
    1977        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
    1978        nulls_sort_change = ""
    1979        if nulls_first and (
    1980            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
    1981        ):
    1982            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
    1983        elif (
    1984            nulls_last
    1985            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
    1986            and not nulls_are_last
    1987        ):
    1988            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
    1989
    1990        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
    1991        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
    1992            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
    1993            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
    1994                self.unsupported(
    1995                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
    1996                )
    1997                nulls_sort_change = ""
    1998            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
    1999                if expression.this.is_int:
    2000                    self.unsupported(
    2001                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
    2002                    )
    2003                else:
    2004                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
    2005                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
    2006                nulls_sort_change = ""
    2007
    2008        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
    2009        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
    2010
    2011        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2013    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2014        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2015        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2016        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
    2017        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
    2018        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
    2019        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
    2020        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
    2021        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
    2022        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
    2023        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
    2024        definition_sqls = [
    2025            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
    2026            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
    2027        ]
    2028        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
    2029        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
    2030        body = "".join(
    2031            (
    2032                partition,
    2033                order,
    2034                measures,
    2035                rows,
    2036                after,
    2037                pattern,
    2038                define,
    2039            )
    2040        )
    2041        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2042        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
    2043        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str: View Source

    2045    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
    2046        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
    2047
    2048        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
    2049        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2050
    2051        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
    2052            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
    2053        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
    2054            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
    2055
    2056        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
    2057
    2058        offset_limit_modifiers = (
    2059            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
    2060            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
    2061            else []
    2062        )
    2063
    2064        return csv(
    2065            *sqls,
    2066            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
    2067            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
    2068            self.sql(expression, "match"),
    2069            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
    2070            self.sql(expression, "where"),
    2071            self.sql(expression, "group"),
    2072            self.sql(expression, "having"),
    2073            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
    2074            self.sql(expression, "order"),
    2075            *offset_limit_modifiers,
    2076            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
    2077            sep="",
    2078        )

def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]: View Source

    2080    def offset_limit_modifiers(
    2081        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    2082    ) -> t.List[str]:
    2083        return [
    2084            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
    2085            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
    2086        ]

def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2088    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2089        return [
    2090            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
    2091            (
    2092                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
    2093                if expression.args.get("windows")
    2094                else ""
    2095            ),
    2096            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
    2097            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
    2098            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
    2099        ]

def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]: View Source

    2101    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
    2102        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
    2103        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
    2104        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str: View Source

    2106    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
    2107        into = expression.args.get("into")
    2108        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2109            into.pop()
    2110
    2111        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
    2112        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
    2113        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
    2114        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2115        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
    2116        top = (
    2117            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
    2118            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
    2119            else ""
    2120        )
    2121
    2122        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2123
    2124        if kind:
    2125            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
    2126                kind = f" AS {kind}"
    2127            else:
    2128                if kind == "STRUCT":
    2129                    expressions = self.expressions(
    2130                        sqls=[
    2131                            self.sql(
    2132                                exp.Struct(
    2133                                    expressions=[
    2134                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
    2135                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
    2136                                        )
    2137                                        for e in expression.expressions
    2138                                    ]
    2139                                )
    2140                            )
    2141                        ]
    2142                    )
    2143                kind = ""
    2144
    2145        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
    2146        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
    2147        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
    2148        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
    2149        sql = self.query_modifiers(
    2150            expression,
    2151            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
    2152            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
    2153            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
    2154        )
    2155
    2156        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
    2157
    2158        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
    2159            if into.args.get("temporary"):
    2160                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
    2161            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
    2162                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
    2163            else:
    2164                table_kind = ""
    2165            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
    2166
    2167        return sql

def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2169    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2171        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
    2172        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str: View Source

    2174    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
    2175        if expression.expressions:
    2176            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2177        return ""

def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str: View Source

    2179    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
    2180        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
    2181        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
    2182        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
    2183        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
    2184        return f"*{except_}{replace}"

def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str: View Source

    2186    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
    2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2188        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str: View Source

    2190    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
    2191        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2192        kind = expression.text("kind")
    2193        if kind:
    2194            kind = f"{kind}."
    2195        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str: View Source

    2197    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
    2198        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"

def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str: View Source

    2200    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
    2201        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2202        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
    2203
    2204        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
    2205        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
    2206
    2207        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
    2208        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str: View Source

    2210    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
    2211        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2212        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2214    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2215        return self.prepend_ctes(
    2216            expression,
    2217            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
    2218        )

def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str: View Source

    2220    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
    2221        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
    2222        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
    2223        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
    2224        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"

def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2226    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2227        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2228
    2229        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
    2230        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
    2231
    2232        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2233            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2234                alias.append("columns", offset)
    2235
    2236        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
    2237            columns = alias.columns
    2238            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
    2239        else:
    2240            alias = self.sql(alias)
    2241
    2242        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
    2243        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
    2244            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
    2245        else:
    2246            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
    2247                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
    2248            elif offset:
    2249                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
    2250            else:
    2251                suffix = alias
    2252
    2253        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str: View Source

    2255    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
    2256        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
    2257        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str: View Source

    2259    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
    2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2261        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
    2262        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2263        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
    2264        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
    2265        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2266        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
    2267
    2268        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
    2269
    2270        first = expression.args.get("first")
    2271        if first is None:
    2272            first = ""
    2273        else:
    2274            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
    2275
    2276        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
    2277            return f"{this} {alias}"
    2278
    2279        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
    2280        return f"{this} ({args})"

def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str: View Source

    2282    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
    2283        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
    2284        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str: View Source

    2286    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
    2287        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2288        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
    2289        end = (
    2290            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
    2291            or "CURRENT ROW"
    2292        )
    2293        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str: View Source

    2295    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
    2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2297        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
    2298        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str: View Source

    2300    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
    2301        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2302        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
    2303        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
    2304        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"

def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str: View Source

    2306    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
    2307        expressions = apply_index_offset(
    2308            expression.this,
    2309            expression.expressions,
    2310            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
    2311        )
    2312        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
    2313        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str: View Source

    2315    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
    2316        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"

def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str: View Source

    2318    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
    2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2320        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
    2321            this = self.wrap(this)
    2322        return f"ANY {this}"

def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str: View Source

    2324    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
    2325        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str: View Source

    2327    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
    2328        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2329        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
    2330
    2331        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
    2332            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
    2333            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
    2334
    2335        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2336
    2337        if default:
    2338            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
    2339
    2340        statements.append("END")
    2341
    2342        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
    2343            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    2344
    2345        return " ".join(statements)

def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str: View Source

    2347    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
    2348        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2349        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2350        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str: View Source

    2352    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
    2353        order = expression.args.get("order")
    2354        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
    2355        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str: View Source

    2357    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
    2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
    2359        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2360        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"

def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str: View Source

    2362    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
    2363        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
    2364
    2365        if trim_type == "LEADING":
    2366            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
    2367        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
    2368            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
    2369        else:
    2370            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)

def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]: View Source

    2372    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
    2373        args = expression.expressions
    2374        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
    2375            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
    2376
    2377        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2378            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
    2379
    2380        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
    2381            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
    2382
    2383        return args

def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str: View Source

    2385    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
    2386        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2387
    2388        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
    2389        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
    2390            return self.sql(expressions[0])
    2391
    2392        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str: View Source

    2394    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
    2395        return self.func(
    2396            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
    2397        )

def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str: View Source

    2399    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
    2400        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
    2401        return f"CHECK ({this})"

def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2403    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2404        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2405        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
    2406        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
    2407        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
    2408        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
    2409        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
    2410        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
    2411        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"

def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str: View Source

    2413    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
    2414        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2415        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2416        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2417        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"

def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str: View Source

    2419    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
    2420        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str: View Source

    2422    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
    2423        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
    2424        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
    2425        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str: View Source

    2427    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
    2428        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str: View Source

    2430    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
    2431        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
    2432        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str: View Source

    2434    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
    2435        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
    2436            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
    2437            if not callable(transform):
    2438                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    2439                return ""
    2440
    2441            return transform(self, expression)
    2442
    2443        if isinstance(expression, int):
    2444            return str(expression)
    2445
    2446        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
    2447            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
    2448            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
    2449        else:
    2450            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
    2451            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
    2452
    2453        return escaped

def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str: View Source

    2455    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
    2456        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2458    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2459        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2460        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2461
    2462        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
    2463        if unique_keys is not None:
    2464            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
    2465        else:
    2466            unique_keys = ""
    2467
    2468        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2469        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2470        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
    2471        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
    2472
    2473        return self.func(
    2474            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
    2475            *expression.expressions,
    2476            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
    2477        )

def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str: View Source

    2479    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
    2480        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str: View Source

    2482    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
    2483        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2484        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2485        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2486        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2487        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2488        return self.func(
    2489            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
    2490        )

def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str: View Source

    2492    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
    2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2494        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
    2495        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
    2496        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
    2497        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
    2498        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
    2499        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
    2500        return self.func(
    2501            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
    2502            this,
    2503            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
    2504        )

def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2506    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2507        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2508        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
    2509        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
    2510
    2511        if nested_schema:
    2512            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
    2513
    2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2516        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    2517        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str: View Source

    2519    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
    2520        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str: View Source

    2522    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
    2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2524        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2525        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2526        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
    2527        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
    2528        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
    2529        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
    2530        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    2531        return self.func(
    2532            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
    2533        )

def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str: View Source

    2535    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
    2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    2538        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2539        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
    2540        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
    2541        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str: View Source

    2543    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
    2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2545        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
    2546        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
    2547        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2548        with_ = (
    2549            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2550            if expressions
    2551            else ""
    2552        )
    2553        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str: View Source

    2555    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
    2556        query = expression.args.get("query")
    2557        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
    2558        field = expression.args.get("field")
    2559        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
    2560
    2561        if query:
    2562            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
    2563        elif unnest:
    2564            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
    2565        elif field:
    2566            in_sql = self.sql(field)
    2567        else:
    2568            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
    2569
    2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str: View Source

    2572    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
    2573        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str: View Source

    2575    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
    2576        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
    2577        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
    2578            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
    2579        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
    2580
    2581        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
    2582            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
    2583            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
    2584
    2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2586        if this:
    2587            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
    2588            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
    2589
    2590        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str: View Source

    2592    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
    2593        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str: View Source

    2595    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
    2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2597        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2598        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
    2599        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
    2600        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    2601        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str: View Source

    2603    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
    2604        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)

def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str: View Source

    2606    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
    2607        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
    2608            sql = self.wrap(expression)
    2609        else:
    2610            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
    2611            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
    2612
    2613        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str: View Source

    2615    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
    2616        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
    2617        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2618        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
    2619        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str: View Source

    2621    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
    2622        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str: View Source

    2624    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
    2625        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
    2626        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
    2627        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str: View Source

    2629    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
    2630        alias = expression.args["alias"]
    2631        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
    2632
    2633        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2634            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
    2635        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
    2636            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
    2637
    2638        return self.alias_sql(expression)

def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str: View Source

    2640    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
    2641        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2643    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2645        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2646        return f"{this} AT {index}"

def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2648    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
    2649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2650        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2651        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str: View Source

    2653    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
    2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2655        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
    2656        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str: View Source

    2658    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
    2659        return self.binary(expression, "+")

def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str: View Source

    2661    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
    2662        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")

def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str: View Source

    2664    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
    2665        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")

def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str: View Source

    2667    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
    2668        if not self.pretty:
    2669            return self.binary(expression, op)
    2670
    2671        sqls = tuple(
    2672            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
    2673            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
    2674        )
    2675
    2676        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
    2677        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)

def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str: View Source

    2679    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
    2680        return self.binary(expression, "&")

def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str: View Source

    2682    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
    2683        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str: View Source

    2685    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
    2686        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str: View Source

    2688    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
    2689        return self.binary(expression, "|")

def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str: View Source

    2691    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
    2692        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str: View Source

    2694    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
    2695        return self.binary(expression, "^")

def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str: View Source

    2697    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
    2698        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
    2699        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
    2700        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2701        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
    2702        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"

def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str: View Source

    2704    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
    2705        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2706        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str: View Source

    2708    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
    2709        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)

def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str: View Source

    2711    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
    2712        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
    2713            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    2714        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str: View Source

    2716    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
    2717        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str: View Source

    2719    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
    2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2721        kind = expression.args["kind"]
    2722        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2723        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2724        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str: View Source

    2726    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
    2727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2728        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
    2729        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
    2730        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
    2731        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
    2732        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
    2733        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
    2734        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
    2735        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str: View Source

    2737    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
    2738        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
    2739        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
    2740        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
    2741        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
    2742
    2743        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
    2744            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
    2745
    2746        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str: View Source

    2748    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
    2749        return "BEGIN"

def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str: View Source

    2751    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
    2752        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
    2753        if chain is not None:
    2754            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
    2755
    2756        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str: View Source

    2758    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
    2759        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
    2760        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
    2761        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str: View Source

    2763    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
    2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2765
    2766        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
    2767        if dtype:
    2768            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
    2769            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
    2770            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    2771            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
    2772            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
    2773
    2774        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
    2775        if default:
    2776            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
    2777
    2778        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    2779        if comment:
    2780            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
    2781
    2782        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
    2783            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
    2784
    2785        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str: View Source

    2787    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
    2788        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
    2789            # Remove db from tables
    2790            expression = expression.transform(
    2791                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
    2792            )
    2793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2794        return f"RENAME TO {this}"

def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str: View Source

    2796    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
    2797        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2798        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2799        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
    2800        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    2802    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2803        actions = expression.args["actions"]
    2804
    2805        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
    2806            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
    2807        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
    2808            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
    2809        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
    2810            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2811        else:
    2812            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
    2813
    2814        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
    2815        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
    2816        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"

def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str: View Source

    2818    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
    2819        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
    2820            return self.expressions(
    2821                expression,
    2822                key="actions",
    2823                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
    2824            )
    2825        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"

def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str: View Source

    2827    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
    2828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
    2829        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
    2830        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str: View Source

    2832    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
    2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    2834        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    2835        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
    2836
    2837        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
    2838        if enforced is not None:
    2839            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
    2840
    2841        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"

def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str: View Source

    2843    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
    2844        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    2845
    2846        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
    2847            case = exp.case()
    2848            for arg in expression.expressions:
    2849                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
    2850            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
    2851
    2852        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    2853
    2854        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
    2855        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
    2856        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str: View Source

    2858    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
    2859        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str: View Source

    2861    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
    2862        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str: View Source

    2874    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
    2875        return self.sql(
    2876            exp.Cast(
    2877                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
    2878                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
    2879            )
    2880        )

def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str: View Source

    2882    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
    2883        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2884            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
    2885        return self.binary(expression, "||")

def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str: View Source

    2887    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
    2888        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
    2889
    2890        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
    2891            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
    2892
    2893        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
    2894            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
    2895                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
    2896            ):
    2897                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
    2898
    2899        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
    2900            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
    2901                return self.sql(
    2902                    exp.cast(
    2903                        l / r,
    2904                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
    2905                    )
    2906                )
    2907
    2908        return self.binary(expression, "/")

def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str: View Source

    2910    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
    2911        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str: View Source

    2913    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
    2914        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str: View Source

    2916    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
    2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str: View Source

    2919    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
    2920        return self.binary(expression, "=")

def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str: View Source

    2922    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
    2923        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str: View Source

    2925    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
    2926        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str: View Source

    2928    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
    2929        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str: View Source

    2931    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
    2932        return self.binary(expression, ">")

def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str: View Source

    2934    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
    2935        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str: View Source

    2937    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
    2938        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")

def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str: View Source

    2940    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
    2941        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")

def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str: View Source

    2943    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
    2944        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
    2945            return self.sql(
    2946                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
    2947            )
    2948        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str: View Source

    2950    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
    2951        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")

def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str: View Source

    2953    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
    2954        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")

def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str: View Source

    2956    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
    2957        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str: View Source

    2959    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
    2960        return self.binary(expression, "<")

def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str: View Source

    2962    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
    2963        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str: View Source

    2965    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
    2966        return self.binary(expression, "%")

def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str: View Source

    2968    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
    2969        return self.binary(expression, "*")

def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str: View Source

    2971    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
    2972        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str: View Source

    2974    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
    2975        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str: View Source

    2977    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
    2978        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str: View Source

    2980    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
    2981        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")

def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str: View Source

    2983    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
    2984        return self.binary(expression, ":")

def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str: View Source

    2986    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
    2987        return self.binary(expression, "-")

def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str: View Source

    2989    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
    2990        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str: View Source

    2992    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
    2993        this = expression.this
    2994        expr = expression.expression
    2995
    2996        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
    2997            this, expr = expr, this
    2998
    2999        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str: View Source

    3001    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
    3002        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3003        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
    3004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3005        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3006        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3008    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
    3009        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
    3010        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str: View Source

    3012    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
    3013        args = []
    3014
    3015        for key in expression.arg_types:
    3016            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
    3017
    3018            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
    3019                for value in arg_value:
    3020                    args.append(value)
    3021            elif arg_value is not None:
    3022                args.append(arg_value)
    3023
    3024        if self.normalize_functions:
    3025            name = expression.sql_name()
    3026        else:
    3027            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
    3028
    3029        return self.func(name, *args)

def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str: View Source

    3031    def func(
    3032        self,
    3033        name: str,
    3034        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
    3035        prefix: str = "(",
    3036        suffix: str = ")",
    3037    ) -> str:
    3038        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str: View Source

    3040    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
    3041        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
    3042        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
    3043            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
    3044        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)

def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int: View Source

    3046    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
    3047        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)

def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]: View Source

    3049    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
    3050        return format_time(
    3051            self.sql(expression, "format"),
    3052            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
    3053            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
    3054        )

def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str: View Source

    3056    def expressions(
    3057        self,
    3058        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
    3059        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
    3060        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    3061        flat: bool = False,
    3062        indent: bool = True,
    3063        skip_first: bool = False,
    3064        sep: str = ", ",
    3065        prefix: str = "",
    3066    ) -> str:
    3067        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
    3068
    3069        if not expressions:
    3070            return ""
    3071
    3072        if flat:
    3073            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
    3074
    3075        num_sqls = len(expressions)
    3076
    3077        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
    3078        pad = " " * self.pad
    3079        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
    3080
    3081        result_sqls = []
    3082        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
    3083            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
    3084            if not sql:
    3085                continue
    3086
    3087            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
    3088
    3089            if self.pretty:
    3090                if self.leading_comma:
    3091                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
    3092                else:
    3093                    result_sqls.append(
    3094                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
    3095                    )
    3096            else:
    3097                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
    3098
    3099        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
    3100        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql

def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str: View Source

    3102    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
    3103        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
    3104        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
    3105        if flat:
    3106            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
    3107        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str: View Source

    3109    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
    3110        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
    3111        if not property_name:
    3112            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
    3113        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str: View Source

    3115    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
    3116        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
    3117        op = self.seg(op)
    3118        return self.query_modifiers(
    3119            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
    3120        )

def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str: View Source

    3122    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
    3123        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str: View Source

    3125    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
    3126        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str: View Source

    3128    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
    3129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3130        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
    3131        expressions = (
    3132            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
    3133        )
    3134        return f"{this}{expressions}"

def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str: View Source

    3136    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
    3137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3138        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
    3139        return f"{this}({expressions})"

def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str: View Source

    3141    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
    3142        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str: View Source

    3144    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
    3145        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
    3146        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
    3147        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3148        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
    3149
    3150        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
    3151        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
    3152            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
    3153            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
    3154                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
    3155        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
    3156            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
    3157                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
    3158            else:
    3159                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
    3160        else:
    3161            then = self.sql(then_expression)
    3162        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str: View Source

    3164    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
    3165        table = expression.this
    3166        table_alias = ""
    3167
    3168        hints = table.args.get("hints")
    3169        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
    3170            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
    3171            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
    3172
    3173        this = self.sql(table)
    3174        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
    3175        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
    3176        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
    3177
    3178        return self.prepend_ctes(
    3179            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
    3180        )

def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str: View Source

    3182    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
    3183        if expression.args.get("format"):
    3184            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
    3185
    3186        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))

def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str: View Source

    3188    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
    3189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3190        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3191        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
    3192        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
    3193        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str: View Source

    3195    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
    3196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3197        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
    3198        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
    3199        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str: View Source

    3201    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
    3202        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str: View Source

    3204    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
    3205        return ""

def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str: View Source

    3207    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
    3208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
    3209        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
    3210        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
    3211        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
    3212        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str: View Source

    3214    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
    3215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3216        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
    3217
    3218        if having:
    3219            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
    3220
    3221        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str: View Source

    3223    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
    3224        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
    3225        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
    3226        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
    3227        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
    3228        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
    3229        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
    3230        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3231        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
    3232        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
    3233        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
    3234        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
    3235        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
    3236        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str: View Source

    3238    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
    3239        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
    3240        if key_block_size:
    3241            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
    3242
    3243        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
    3244        if using:
    3245            return f"USING {using}"
    3246
    3247        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
    3248        if parser:
    3249            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
    3250
    3251        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
    3252        if comment:
    3253            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
    3254
    3255        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
    3256        if visible is not None:
    3257            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
    3258
    3259        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
    3260        if engine_attr:
    3261            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
    3262
    3263        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
    3264        if secondary_engine_attr:
    3265            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
    3266
    3267        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
    3268        return ""

def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str: View Source

    3270    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
    3271        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
    3272        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
    3273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3274        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
    3275        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
    3276        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
    3277        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
    3278        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
    3279        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
    3280        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
    3281        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"

def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str: View Source

    3283    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
    3284        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
    3285            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3286
    3287        case = exp.Case().when(
    3288            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
    3289            expression.args["true"],
    3290            copy=False,
    3291        )
    3292        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
    3293        if else_cond:
    3294            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
    3295
    3296        return self.sql(case)

def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str: View Source

    3298    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
    3299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3300        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3301        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
    3302        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
    3303        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
    3304        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str: View Source

    3306    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
    3307        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str: View Source

    3309    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
    3310        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str: View Source

    3312    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
    3313        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3314        model = f"MODEL {model}"
    3315        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3316        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
    3317        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
    3318        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str: View Source

    3320    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
    3321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3322        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
    3323        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str: View Source

    3325    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
    3326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
    3327        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
    3328        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str: View Source

    3330    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
    3331        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")

def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str: View Source

    3333    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
    3334        arg = expression.this
    3335        if not arg.type:
    3336            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
    3337
    3338            arg = annotate_types(arg)
    3339
    3340        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
    3341            return self.sql(arg)
    3342
    3343        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
    3344        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))

def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str: View Source

    3346    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
    3347        this = expression.this
    3348        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
    3349            return self.sql(this)
    3350
    3351        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))

def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str: View Source

    3353    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
    3354        this = expression.this
    3355        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
    3356
    3357        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
    3358            return self.sql(
    3359                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
    3360            )
    3361
    3362        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
    3363            return self.sql(this)
    3364
    3365        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))

def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str: View Source

    3367    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
    3368        return self.sql(
    3369            exp.func(
    3370                "DATEDIFF",
    3371                expression.this,
    3372                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
    3373                "day",
    3374            )
    3375        )

def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str: View Source

    3377    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
    3378        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
    3379            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
    3380
    3381        unit = expression.text("unit")
    3382        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
    3383            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
    3384
    3385        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)