## Variables and Mutability

As mentioned in Chapter 2, by default variables are immutable. This is one of
many nudges Rust gives you to write your code in a way that takes advantage of
the safety and easy concurrency that Rust offers. However, you still have the
option to make your variables mutable. Let’s explore how and why Rust
encourages you to favor immutability and why sometimes you might want to opt
out.

When a variable is immutable, once a value is bound to a name, you can’t change
that value. To illustrate this, let’s generate a new project called *variables*
in your *projects* directory by using `cargo new variables`.

Then, in your new *variables* directory, open *src/main.rs* and replace its
code with the following code that won’t compile just yet:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>

```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/src/main.rs}}
```

Save and run the program using `cargo run`. You should receive an error
message, as shown in this output:

```console
{{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt}}
```

This example shows how the compiler helps you find errors in your programs.
Even though compiler errors can be frustrating, they only mean your program
isn’t safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do *not* mean that you’re
not a good programmer! Experienced Rustaceans still get compiler errors.

The error message indicates that the cause of the error is that you `cannot
assign twice to immutable variable x`, because you tried to assign a second
value to the immutable `x` variable.

It’s important that we get compile-time errors when we attempt to change a
value that we previously designated as immutable because this very situation
can lead to bugs. If one part of our code operates on the assumption that a
value will never change and another part of our code changes that value, it’s
possible that the first part of the code won’t do what it was designed to do.
The cause of this kind of bug can be difficult to track down after the fact,
especially when the second piece of code changes the value only *sometimes*.

In Rust, the compiler guarantees that when you state that a value won’t change,
it really won’t change. That means that when you’re reading and writing code,
you don’t have to keep track of how and where a value might change. Your code
is thus easier to reason through.

But mutability can be very useful. Variables are immutable only by default; as
you did in Chapter 2, you can make them mutable by adding `mut` in front of the
variable name. In addition to allowing this value to change, `mut` conveys
intent to future readers of the code by indicating that other parts of the code
will be changing this variable’s value.

For example, let’s change *src/main.rs* to the following:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>

```rust
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/src/main.rs}}
```

When we run the program now, we get this:

```console
{{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt}}
```

We’re allowed to change the value that `x` binds to from `5` to `6` when `mut`
is used. In some cases, you’ll want to make a variable mutable because it makes
the code more convenient to write than if it had only immutable variables.

There are multiple trade-offs to consider in addition to the prevention of
bugs. For example, in cases where you’re using large data structures, mutating
an instance in place may be faster than copying and returning newly allocated
instances. With smaller data structures, creating new instances and writing in
a more functional programming style may be easier to think through, so lower
performance might be a worthwhile penalty for gaining that clarity.

### Differences Between Variables and Constants

Being unable to change the value of a variable might have reminded you of
another programming concept that most other languages have: *constants*. Like
immutable variables, constants are values that are bound to a name and are not
allowed to change, but there are a few differences between constants and
variables.

First, you aren’t allowed to use `mut` with constants. Constants aren’t just
immutable by default—they’re always immutable.

You declare constants using the `const` keyword instead of the `let` keyword,
and the type of the value *must* be annotated. We’re about to cover types and
type annotations in the next section, [“Data Types,”][data-types]<!-- ignore
--> so don’t worry about the details right now. Just know that you must always
annotate the type.

Constants can be declared in any scope, including the global scope, which makes
them useful for values that many parts of code need to know about.

The last difference is that constants may be set only to a constant expression,
not the result of a function call or any other value that could only be
computed at runtime.

Here’s an example of a constant declaration where the constant’s name is
`MAX_POINTS` and its value is set to 100,000. (Rust’s naming convention for
constants is to use all uppercase with underscores between words, and
underscores can be inserted in numeric literals to improve readability):

```rust
const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 100_000;
```

Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope they
were declared in, making them a useful choice for values in your application
domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know about, such as the
maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to earn or the speed
of light.

Naming hardcoded values used throughout your program as constants is useful in
conveying the meaning of that value to future maintainers of the code. It also
helps to have only one place in your code you would need to change if the
hardcoded value needed to be updated in the future.

### Shadowing

As you saw in the guessing game tutorial in the [“Comparing the Guess to the
Secret Number”][comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]<!-- ignore -->
section in Chapter 2, you can declare a new variable with the same name as a
previous variable, and the new variable shadows the previous variable.
Rustaceans say that the first variable is *shadowed* by the second, which means
that the second variable’s value is what appears when the variable is used. We
can shadow a variable by using the same variable’s name and repeating the use
of the `let` keyword as follows:

<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span>

```rust
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/src/main.rs}}
```

This program first binds `x` to a value of `5`. Then it shadows `x` by
repeating `let x =`, taking the original value and adding `1` so the value of
`x` is then `6`. The third `let` statement also shadows `x`, multiplying the
previous value by `2` to give `x` a final value of `12`. When we run this
program, it will output the following:

```console
{{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt}}
```

Shadowing is different from marking a variable as `mut`, because we’ll get a
compile-time error if we accidentally try to reassign to this variable without
using the `let` keyword. By using `let`, we can perform a few transformations
on a value but have the variable be immutable after those transformations have
been completed.

The other difference between `mut` and shadowing is that because we’re
effectively creating a new variable when we use the `let` keyword again, we can
change the type of the value but reuse the same name. For example, say our
program asks a user to show how many spaces they want between some text by
inputting space characters, but we really want to store that input as a number:

```rust
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-04-shadowing-can-change-types/src/main.rs:here}}
```

This construct is allowed because the first `spaces` variable is a string type
and the second `spaces` variable, which is a brand-new variable that happens to
have the same name as the first one, is a number type. Shadowing thus spares us
from having to come up with different names, such as `spaces_str` and
`spaces_num`; instead, we can reuse the simpler `spaces` name. However, if we
try to use `mut` for this, as shown here, we’ll get a compile-time error:

```rust,ignore,does_not_compile
{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/src/main.rs:here}}
```

The error says we’re not allowed to mutate a variable’s type:

```console
{{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/output.txt}}
```

Now that we’ve explored how variables work, let’s look at more data types they
can have.

[comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]:
ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number
[data-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#data-types
